Charles Nhemachena

When not every response to climate change is a good one: Identifying principles for sustainable adaptation

Climate adaptation has become a pressing issue. Yet little attention has been paid to the consequences of adaptation policies and practices for sustainability. Recognition that not every adaptation to climate change is a good one has drawn attention to the need for sustainable adaptation strategies and measures that contribute to social justice and environmental integrity. This article presents four normative principles to guide responses to climate change and illustrates the significance of the ‘sustainable adaptation’ concept through case studies from diverse contexts. The principles are: first, recognize the context for vulnerability, including multiple stressors; second, acknowledge that differing values and interests affect adaptation outcomes; third, integrate local knowledge into adaptation responses; and fourth, consider potential feedbacks between local and global processes. We argue that fundamental societal transformations are required in order to achieve sustainable development pathways and avoid adaptation funding going into efforts that exacerbate vulnerability and contribute to rising emissions. Despite numerous challenges involved in achieving such change, we suggest that sustainable adaptation practices have the potential to address some of the shortcomings of conventional social and economic development pathways.

Assessment of the Economic Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Zimbabwe : A Ricardian Approach

This study uses the Ricardian approach to examine the economic impact of climate change on agriculture in Zimbabwe. Net farm revenue is regressed against various climate, soil, hydrological and socio-economic variables to help determine the factors that influence variability in net farm revenues. The study is based on data from a survey of 700 smallholder farming households interviewed across the country. The empirical results show that climatic variables (temperature and precipitation) have significant effects on net farm revenues in Zimbabwe. In addition to the analysis of all farms, the study also analyzes the effects on dryland farms and farms with irrigation. The analysis indicates that net farm revenues are affected negatively by increases in temperature and positively by increases in precipitation. The results from sensitivity analysis suggest that agricultural production in Zimbabwes smallholder farming system is significantly constrained by climatic factors (high temperature and low rainfall). The elasticity results show that the changes in net revenue are high for dryland farming compared to farms with irrigation. The results show that farms with irrigation are more resistant to changes in climate, indicating that irrigation is an important adaptation option to help reduce the impact of further changes in climate. An overview of farmer adaptation to changing climate indicates that farmers are already using some adaptation strategies-such as dry and early planting, growing drought resistant crops, changing planting dates, and using irrigation-to cushion themselves against further anticipated adverse climatic conditions. An important policy message from the empirical findings is that there is a need to provide adequate extension information services to ensure that farmers receive up-to-date information about rainfall patterns in the forthcoming season so that they make well-informed decisions on their planting dates. Policies that increase farmer training and access to credit and aid facilities and help farmers acquire livestock and other important farm assets can help improve net farm performance. Ensuring the availability and accessibility of fertilizers and crop seeds before the onset of the next cropping season can also significantly improve net farm performance across households.

Measuring The Economic Impact Of Climate Change On African Agricultural Production Systems

This study measured the economic impacts of climate change on crop and livestock farming in Africa based on a cross-sectional survey of over 8000 farming households from 11 countries in east, west, north and southern Africa. The response of net revenue from crop and livestock agriculture across various farm types and systems in Africa to changes in climate normals (i.e. mean rainfall and temperature) is analysed. The analyses controlled for effects of key socioeconomic, technology, soil and hydrological factors influencing agricultural production. Results show that net farm revenues are in general negatively affected by warmer and drier climates. The small-scale mixed crop and livestock system predominantly typical in Africa is the most tolerant whereas specialized crop production is the most vulnerable to warming and lower rainfall. These results have important policy implications, especially for the suitability of the increasing tendency toward large-scale mono-cropping strategies for agricultural development in Africa and other parts of the developing world in light of expected climate changes. Mixed crop and livestock farming and irrigation offered better adaptation options for farmers against further warming and drying predicted under various future climate scenarios.

Analysis of determinants of farm-level adaptation measures to climate change in Southern Africa

The study examines farmer adaptation strategies to climate change in Southern Africa based on a cross-section database of three countries (South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe). A multivariate discrete choice model was used to analyse the determinants of farm-level adaptation strategies. Results confirm that access to credit, free extension services, awareness of climate change are critical determinants of farm-level adaptation options. Policies aimed at easing identified key limits to farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change need to emphasize the critical role of: extension services; provision of improved climate, production and market information as well as the means to implement adaptation through affordable credit and insurance against climate risks (safety nets). Key words: Climate change, farm-level adaptation, Southern Africa.

Reflections on the Green Growth Index for developing countries: A focus of selected African countries

The GGKP (Green Growth Knowledge Platform) (2013) provides a useful overview as to why indicators are inevitable for green growth to inform policy agenda. From the GGKPs perspective, indicators: Are needed to focus attention and provide benchmarks against which to measure the adequacy of policy responses. … For demand-based measures (such as carbon dioxide intensity of consumption), policy implications are further complicated by a host of factors at play, including issues related to international trade and transport and the interaction between trade and environmental policies. Many of these caveats can be overcome by reporting and interpreting indicators in the appropriate context, along with taking into account country-specific ecological, geographical, social, economic, structural, and institutional features (GGKP, 2013: 34-35). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Climate Change Adaptation through the Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Southern Africa

Climate change is a complex and cross-cutting problem that needs an integrated and transformative systems approach to respond to the challenge. Current sectoral approaches to climate change adaptation initiatives often create imbalances and retard sustainable development. Regional and international literature on climate change adaptation opportunities and challenges applicable to southern Africa from a water-energy-food (WEF) nexus perspective was reviewed. Specifically, this review highlights climate change impacts on water, energy, and food resources in southern Africa, while exploring mitigation and adaptation opportunities. The review further recommends strategies to develop cross-sectoral sustainable measures aimed at building resilient communities. Regional WEF nexus related institutions and legal frameworks were also reviewed to relate the WEF nexus to policy. Southern Africa is witnessing an increased frequency and intensity in climate change-associated extreme weather events, causing water, food, and energy insecurity. A projected reduction of 20% in annual rainfall by 2080 in southern Africa will only increase the regional socio-economic challenges. This is exacerbating regional resource scarcities and vulnerabilities. It will also have direct and indirect impacts on nutrition, human well-being, and health. Reduced agricultural production, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and clean, sustainable energy are the major areas of concern. The region is already experiencing an upsurge of vector borne diseases (malaria and dengue fever), and water and food-borne diseases (cholera and diarrhoea). What is clear is that climate change impacts are cross-sectoral and multidimensional, and therefore require cross-sectoral mitigation and adaptation approaches. In this regard, a well-coordinated and integrated WEF nexus approach offers opportunities to build resilient systems, harmonise interventions, and mitigate trade-offs and hence improve sustainability. This would be achieved through greater resource mobilisation and coordination, policy convergence across sectors, and targeting nexus points in the landscape. The WEF nexus approach has potential to increase the resilience of marginalised communities in southern Africa by contributing towards attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 13).

What gets measured gets done!: towards an afro-barometer for tracking progress in achieving sustainable development goal 5

abstract What gets measured gets done! This saying implies that without quantifying what needs to be done, doing it may not be possible. This term is relevant to how African countries will implement the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, particularly in tracking progress on SDG 5 on gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. During the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), governments failed to establish baselines for measuring progress in meeting the goals. To ensure that no country is left behind, the UN came up with a list of indicators (Tiers 1-3) for tracking progress in achieving SDGs targets. Tier 1 indicators fall in conventional data sets and almost all countries have these data. The process for implementation, through domestication and localisation by countries, includes the responsibilities of reporting, tracking and monitoring. The article highlights the importance of attempts to establish a broad baseline of data on women in Africa. An Afro-barometer, drawing from UN Tier 1 indicators and using a composite index and data drawn from the World Development Indicators (WDI), is a tentative step towards a baseline for tracking progress towards achieving SDG 5 in Africa. The research established data for 52 of the 54 African countries on women for three indicators, namely: women’s political representation, maternal mortality rates and women’s labour force participation. The gaps in the available data, places a question mark over the capacity and will to measure key indicators of gender inequality by countries. Implementation and reporting is integral to the achievement of the SDGs as well as the African Agenda 2063 and call for political will and resources on the continent to move from the merely aspirational, towards the transformation that the agendas propose.

Economic Aspects of Genetic Resources in Addressing Agricultural Productivity in the Context of Climate Change

The main objective of this paper is to discuss the economic aspects of genetic resources in addressing agricultural productivity in the context of climate change and variability in Africa. The paper synthesizes the published literature related to this topic, which has not been well integrated, especially with respect to economic improvements and the use of genetic resources in Africa. The focus is to understand the nexus between climate change, genetic resources, and agricultural productivity; the economic aspects involved in the conservation and improvement of genetic resources at farm-level use; and the adoption of these technologies to address agricultural productivity. The results show that climate change affects both genetic resources and agricultural productivity. The interaction of climate change and other stressors exacerbates the vulnerability of agricultural production systems and genetic resources. The conservation and improvement of genetic resources should address the urgent need to increase investments in conservation and the development of future adapted technologies. At the farm level, the focus should be on developing distribution and dissemination systems, including raising awareness and educating farmers on the role of genetic resource technologies in addressing agricultural productivity under climate change. Furthermore, it is critical to ensure that farmers have the means to purchase the improved genetic resource technologies to be able to use and adopt them. Efforts to conserve, improve, and promote the use of genetic resource technologies in addressing agricultural productivity should integrate the distribution, accessibility, and use of the improved technologies at the farm level and be integrated in broader adaptation and development efforts.

Spatial Mapping and Analysis of Integrated Agricultural Land Use and Infrastructure in Mhlontlo Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa

The study spatially mapped and analysed agriculture land use and infrastructure requirements in Mhlontlo Local Municipality linked to ASGISA Eastern Cape’s agrarian transformation and rural development initiatives. Emphasis was placed on informing ASGISA Eastern Cape’s broader rural infrastructure programme in support of agrarian transformation and rural development for the Eastern Cape province. The study approach was participatory, extensively involving discussions with stakeholders, visits to project areas, internal and external workshops and document analysis. The results show that the municipality has a huge potential for agriculture and improved utilisation of available arable agricultural land that still needs to be realised. The poor state of basic infrastructure for economic and social service delivery remains a key constraint to sustainable and productive agricultural land use and rural development in Mhlontlo Local Municipality. This finding tends to hamper the contributions of the rural labour force to productive agricultural enterprises as well as limiting the knowledge base of rural people. This study recommends an integrated approach to rural agricultural transformation in Mhlontlo which requires infrastructure investments with a broader scope that transcends agricultural land use developments. For example, direct agricultural infrastructural investments and activities need to be complemented by investments in social services aimed at reducing poverty and stimulating socio-economic growth and development of the local municipality.

A Policy Framework for Sustainable Utilisation of Farmland for the Waterberg District Municipality in South Africa

This study crafts a policy framework for sustainable utilisation of farmland for the Waterberg District Municipality in South Africa. The district, being predominantly agricultural and rural, faces contention in terms of land allocation for traditional agricultural land uses versus contemporary uses such as golf courses, game ranching and holiday accommodation/lodges. The situation was exacerbated by the fact that these challenges were besetting the district at a time when it did not have a policy for sustainable land use. Fully cognisant of this shortcoming, the municipality decided to generate a policy framework for sustainable utilisation of farmland. The approach entailed a participatory situational analysis identifying all land zones for agricultural purposes in the district and prime agricultural land as well as environmentally sensitive areas. In addition, the policy environment governing the development of agricultural land was thoroughly assessed to ensure compliance, consistency and alignment of the policy with the provincial and national policies. The outcome is a policy framework expected to facilitate, guide and influence the sustainable subdivision of farmland taking into account the realities of the existence of competing needs for agricultural land use. The policy framework clearly shows specific areas that may and may not subdivide further, with reasons. Also, it presents a set of guidelines and minimum requirements, to inform decision-making regarding subdivision proposals.