Charlotte E. Ariyan

Nivolumab plus Ipilimumab in Advanced Melanoma

BACKGROUND In patients with melanoma, ipilimumab (an antibody against cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 [CTLA-4]) prolongs overall survival, and nivolumab (an antibody against the programmed death 1 [PD-1] receptor) produced durable tumor regression in a phase 1 trial. On the basis of their distinct immunologic mechanisms of action and supportive preclinical data, we conducted a phase 1 trial of nivolumab combined with ipilimumab in patients with advanced melanoma. METHODS We administered intravenous doses of nivolumab and ipilimumab in patients every 3 weeks for 4 doses, followed by nivolumab alone every 3 weeks for 4 doses (concurrent regimen). The combined treatment was subsequently administered every 12 weeks for up to 8 doses. In a sequenced regimen, patients previously treated with ipilimumab received nivolumab every 2 weeks for up to 48 doses. RESULTS A total of 53 patients received concurrent therapy with nivolumab and ipilimumab, and 33 received sequenced treatment. The objective-response rate (according to modified World Health Organization criteria) for all patients in the concurrent-regimen group was 40%. Evidence of clinical activity (conventional, unconfirmed, or immune-related response or stable disease for ≥24 weeks) was observed in 65% of patients. At the maximum doses that were associated with an acceptable level of adverse events (nivolumab at a dose of 1 mg per kilogram of body weight and ipilimumab at a dose of 3 mg per kilogram), 53% of patients had an objective response, all with tumor reduction of 80% or more. Grade 3 or 4 adverse events related to therapy occurred in 53% of patients in the concurrent-regimen group but were qualitatively similar to previous experience with monotherapy and were generally reversible. Among patients in the sequenced-regimen group, 18% had grade 3 or 4 adverse events related to therapy and the objective-response rate was 20%. CONCLUSIONS Concurrent therapy with nivolumab and ipilimumab had a manageable safety profile and provided clinical activity that appears to be distinct from that in published data on monotherapy, with rapid and deep tumor regression in a substantial proportion of patients. (Funded by Bristol-Myers Squibb and Ono Pharmaceutical; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01024231.).

Alternative transcription initiation leads to expression of a novel ALK isoform in cancer

Activation of oncogenes by mechanisms other than genetic aberrations such as mutations, translocations, or amplifications is largely undefined. Here we report a novel isoform of the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) that is expressed in ∼11% of melanomas and sporadically in other human cancer types, but not in normal tissues. The novel ALK transcript initiates from a de novo alternative transcription initiation (ATI) site in ALK intron 19, and was termed ALKATI. In ALKATI-expressing tumours, the ATI site is enriched for H3K4me3 and RNA polymerase II, chromatin marks characteristic of active transcription initiation sites. ALKATI is expressed from both ALK alleles, and no recurrent genetic aberrations are found at the ALK locus, indicating that the transcriptional activation is independent of genetic aberrations at the ALK locus. The ALKATI transcript encodes three proteins with molecular weights of 61.1, 60.8 and 58.7 kilodaltons, consisting primarily of the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain. ALKATI stimulates multiple oncogenic signalling pathways, drives growth-factor-independent cell proliferation in vitro, and promotes tumorigenesis in vivo in mouse models. ALK inhibitors can suppress the kinase activity of ALKATI, suggesting that patients with ALKATI-expressing tumours may benefit from ALK inhibitors. Our findings suggest a novel mechanism of oncogene activation in cancer through de novo alternative transcription initiation.

Paradoxical activation of T cells via augmented ERK signaling mediated by a RAF inhibitor

Callahan and colleagues show that RAF inhibitors can potentiate T-cell activation by increasing T-cell expansion and ERK signaling, and when combined with CTLA-4 blockade show superior tumor control in two transplantable mouse tumor models. RAF inhibitors selectively block extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK) signaling in BRAF-mutant melanomas and have defined a genotype-guided approach to care for this disease. RAF inhibitors have the opposite effect in BRAF wild-type tumor cells, where they cause hyperactivation of ERK signaling. Here, we predict that RAF inhibitors can enhance T-cell activation, based on the observation that these agents paradoxically activate ERK signaling in BRAF wild-type cells. To test this hypothesis, we have evaluated the effects of the RAF inhibitor BMS908662 on T-cell activation and signaling in vitro and in vivo. We observe that T-cell activation is enhanced in a concentration-dependent manner and that this effect corresponds with increased ERK signaling, consistent with paradoxical activation of the pathway. Furthermore, we find that the combination of BMS908662 with cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) blockade in vivo potentiates T-cell expansion, corresponding with hyperactivation of ERK signaling in T cells detectable ex vivo. Finally, this combination demonstrates superior antitumor activity, compared with either agent alone, in two transplantable tumor models. This study provides clear evidence that RAF inhibitors can modulate T-cell function by potentiating T-cell activation in vitro and in vivo. Paradoxical activation of ERK signaling in T cells offers one mechanism to explain the enhanced antitumor activity seen when RAF inhibitors are combined with CTLA-4 blockade in preclinical models. Cancer Immunol Res; 2(1); 70–79. ©2013 AACR.

Anal versus rectal melanoma: does site of origin predict outcome?

BACKGROUND: Anatomic site is a predictive factor in subtypes of cutaneous and mucosal melanoma. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the clinical relevance of location of origin of anorectal melanoma as a prognostic factor. DESIGN: With the use of a prospectively maintained database, clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes were compared according to the site of origin. SETTINGS, PATIENTS, INTERVENTIONS: A retrospective review was conducted of patients diagnosed with anorectal melanoma from 1994 to 2010. Tumors were defined as anal, anorectal, or rectal melanoma according to their anatomic relationship to the dentate line. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Clinicopathologic factors were compared by &khgr;2 test. Time-to-event analysis was performed by Kaplan-Meier analysis. RESULTS: Of the 96 patients included (41 with anal melanoma, 32 with anorectal melanoma, 23 with rectal melanoma), patients with rectal and anorectal mucosal melanoma had advanced primary tumors (median Breslow thickness, 12 mm and 8 mm, p = 0.002), whereas anal lesions could be found at earlier depths (median thickness, 6.5 mm). Patients with anal tumors more commonly underwent transanal excision (p < 0.02) and sentinel lymph node biopsy (p = 0.004) versus anorectal and rectal tumors. Patterns of recurrence were also distinct; nearly two-thirds of anorectal and rectal tumors recurred systemically, whereas anal melanoma more often recurred within the lymph nodes first (63%; p < 0.02). Recurrence occurred in 24 (59%) patients with anal tumors, 23 (72%) patients with anorectal tumors, and 16 (70%) patients with rectal tumors. Median overall survival was 22 months for anal melanoma, 28 months for anorectal melanoma, and 27 months for rectal melanoma. Recurrence and survival were not statistically different between the groups. LIMITATIONS: This study is limited by small sample size and its retrospective nature. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents the only series describing the outcomes of anorectal melanoma by anatomic location. Lesions at or proximal to the dentate line present with more advanced disease, possibly related to a delay in diagnosis. Lesions distal to the dentate line more commonly recur within lymph nodes, which may represent differences in nodal drainage. Irrespective of location, the long-term prognosis remains poor for all cases of anorectal melanoma.

Melanoma Mutagenesis and Aberrant Cell Signaling

BACKGROUND Malignant melanoma is the most fatal type of skin cancer. Traditional melanoma classification has been based on histological subtype or anatomical location. However, recent evidence suggests that melanoma comprises a group of diseases characterized by distinct molecular mutations. These mutations affect disease behavior but provide unique opportunities for targeted therapy. METHODS In this review, several signaling pathways in melanoma are described as well as how mutations of BRAF, NRAS, KIT, GNAQ, and GNA11 genes cause aberrant signaling and malignant transformation. RESULTS Multiple genes affecting both the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway are mutated in melanoma. Melanomas harboring the BRAF V600E mutation have demonstrated sensitivity to both RAF and MAPK/extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitors in vitro and in vivo. In addition, KIT-mutant melanomas, often arising from mucosal, acral, and chronically sun-damaged skin surfaces, have shown clinical response to several inhibitors of the type III transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase KIT. Uveal melanoma, which often harbors GNAQ or GNA11 mutations, may also be sensitive to MAPK/ERK or protein kinase C/PI3K pathway inhibition. CONCLUSIONS Emerging knowledge of these molecular alterations has led to clinical advances in patients with melanoma. The study of known mutations and identification of new potential targets must continue in an effort to develop more effective therapies for this disease.

Prognosis of Mucosal, Uveal, Acral, Nonacral Cutaneous, and Unknown Primary Melanoma From the Time of First Metastasis

BACKGROUND Subtypes of melanoma, such as mucosal, uveal, and acral, are believed to result in worse prognoses than nonacral cutaneous melanoma. After a diagnosis of distant metastatic disease, however, the overall survival of patients with mucosal, uveal, acral, nonacral cutaneous, and unknown primary melanoma has not been directly compared. MATERIALS AND METHODS We conducted a single-center, retrospective analysis of 3,454 patients with melanoma diagnosed with distant metastases from 2000 to 2013, identified from a prospectively maintained database. We examined melanoma subtype, date of diagnosis of distant metastases, age at diagnosis of metastasis, gender, and site of melanoma metastases. RESULTS Of the 3,454 patients (237 with mucosal, 286 with uveal, 2,292 with nonacral cutaneous, 105 with acral cutaneous, and 534 with unknown primary melanoma), 2,594 died. The median follow-up was 46.1 months. The median overall survival for those with mucosal, uveal, acral, nonacral cutaneous, and unknown primary melanoma was 9.1, 13.4, 11.4, 11.7, and 10.4 months, respectively. Patients with uveal melanoma, cutaneous melanoma (acral and nonacral), and unknown primary melanoma had similar survival, but patients with mucosal melanoma had worse survival. Patients diagnosed with metastatic melanoma in 2006-2010 and 2011-2013 had better overall survival than patients diagnosed in 2000-2005. In a multivariate model, patients with mucosal melanoma had inferior overall survival compared with patients with the other four subtypes. CONCLUSION Additional research and advocacy are needed for patients with mucosal melanoma because of their shorter overall survival in the metastatic setting. Despite distinct tumor biology, the survival was similar for those with metastatic uveal melanoma, acral, nonacral cutaneous, and unknown primary melanoma. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Uveal, acral, and mucosal melanoma are assumed to result in a worse prognosis than nonacral cutaneous melanoma or unknown primary melanoma. No studies, however, have been conducted assessing the overall survival of patients with these melanoma subtypes starting at the time of distant metastatic disease. The present study found that patients with uveal, acral, nonacral cutaneous, and unknown primary melanoma have similar overall survival after distant metastases have been diagnosed. These findings provide information for oncologists to reconsider previously held assumptions and appropriately counsel patients. Patients with mucosal melanoma have worse overall survival and are thus a group in need of specific research and advocacy.

The delicate balance of melanoma immunotherapy

The strategy of immune modulation for the treatment of cancer is being refined with the introduction of multiple new therapeutic agents into the clinic. Melanoma is a disease where many of these agents have demonstrated efficacy. The mechanisms of action of these agents exploit the counter‐regulatory mechanisms of the immune response. However, these agents are also associated with immune‐related adverse events (IRAEs), which represent tissue‐specific inflammatory responses. These IRAEs highlight the delicate balance of immunologic homeostasis and, with some interventions, may occur more frequently in patients who sustain a therapeutic response. This review will discuss melanoma immunogenicity and immunotherapy. Furthermore, the spectrum and distinction between a reversible immune adverse event and autoimmunity will be highlighted.

Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy and Management of Regional Lymph Nodes in Melanoma: American Society of Clinical Oncology and Society of Surgical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline Update

Purpose To update the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO)-Society of Surgical Oncology (SSO) guideline for sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy in melanoma. Methods An ASCO-SSO panel was formed, and a systematic review of the literature was conducted regarding SLN biopsy and completion lymph node dissection (CLND) after a positive sentinel node in patients with melanoma. Results Nine new observational studies, two systematic reviews, and an updated randomized controlled trial of SLN biopsy, as well as two randomized controlled trials of CLND after positive SLN biopsy, were included. Recommendations Routine SLN biopsy is not recommended for patients with thin melanomas that are T1a (nonulcerated lesions < 0.8 mm in Breslow thickness). SLN biopsy may be considered for thin melanomas that are T1b (0.8 to 1.0 mm Breslow thickness or < 0.8 mm Breslow thickness with ulceration) after a thorough discussion with the patient of the potential benefits and risk of harms associated with the procedure. SLN biopsy is recommended for patients with intermediate-thickness melanomas (T2 or T3; Breslow thickness of > 1.0 to 4.0 mm). SLN biopsy may be recommended for patients with thick melanomas (T4; > 4.0 mm in Breslow thickness), after a discussion of the potential benefits and risks of harm. In the case of a positive SLN biopsy, CLND or careful observation are options for patients with low-risk micrometastatic disease, with due consideration of clinicopathological factors. For higher-risk patients, careful observation may be considered only after a thorough discussion with patients about the potential risks and benefits of foregoing CLND. Important qualifying statements outlining relevant clinicopathological factors and details of the reference patient populations are included within the guideline. Additional information is available at www.asco.org/melanoma-guidelines and www.asco.org/guidelineswiki .

Safety and Feasibility of Minimally Invasive Inguinal Lymph Node Dissection in Patients With Melanoma (SAFE-MILND): Report of a Prospective Multi-institutional Trial

Background: Minimally invasive inguinal lymph node dissection (MILND) is a novel approach to inguinal lymphadenectomy. SAFE-MILND (NCT01500304) is a multicenter, phase I/II clinical trial evaluating the safety and feasibility of MILND for patients with melanoma in a group of surgeons newly adopting the procedure. Methods: Twelve melanoma surgeons from 10 institutions without any previous MILND experience, enrolled patients into a prospective study after completing specialized training including didactic lectures, participating in a hands-on cadaveric laboratory, and being provided an instructional DVD of the procedure. Complications and adverse postoperative events were graded using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events Version 4.0. Results: Eighty-seven patients underwent a MILND. Seventy-seven cases (88.5%) were completed via a minimally invasive approach. The median total inguinal lymph nodes pathologically examined (SLN + MILND) was 12.0 (interquartile range 8.0, 14.0). Overall, 71% of patients suffered an adverse event (AE); the majority of these were grades 1 and 2, with 26% of patients experiencing a grade 3 AE. No grade 4 or 5 AEs were observed. Conclusions: After a structured training program, high-volume melanoma surgeons adopted a novel surgical technique with a lymph node retrieval rate that met or exceeded current oncologic guidelines and published benchmarks, and a favorable morbidity profile.

History of regional chemotherapy for cancer of the extremities

Patients with recurrent cutaneous or soft tissue malignancies of the extremity provide a unique opportunity to evaluate therapy targeted to the isolated limb. The most common clinical presentation of recurrent extremity malignancy occurs in patients with melanoma. The extremity is the site of primary melanoma in half of patients with the disease 1, and of those with a primary melanoma of Breslow depth ≥1.5 mm, 15% will develop a local or in-transit recurrence 2. Palliation of extremity disease is important in these patients, as median survival after diagnosis of in-transit or locally recurrent disease >2 years 34. Radical approaches to eradication of extremity recurrence are rarely used, although in a highly selected group of patients undergoing amputation, 42% 5-year survival was reported 5. As greater recognition of the palliative nature of extremity therapy has evolved, an emphasis on preservation of limb function has supplanted cure as a more realistic therapeutic goal. While occasional cure can be observed, it would be misleading to propose this as the likely outcome of eradication of recurrent extremity melanoma. Isolated limb perfusion (ILP) was developed as an alternative to amputation in patients with recurrent cancer of the extremity. The concept was that vascular isolation of the limb would allow delivery of higher (and potentially more effective) doses of chemotherapy to the disease in the limb than could be achieved with systemic therapy.