Charlotte L.R. Payne

‘Entomophagy’: an evolving terminology in need of review

There is growing interest in insects as human food in academia, food and agricultural industries, public institutions and the public at large. Yet many of the words and concepts used to describe these organisms and the human practices surrounding them are still rudimentary, compared to the diversity of the organisms themselves and the existing complexity and rapid evolution of the practices they aim to describe. The goals of this paper are to: (1) show how the roots of the term ‘entomophagy’ and its uses have evolved over time; (2) illustrate some of the term’s problems that necessitate its review; and (3) offer recommendations for use of the term in future research and other practice. Our paper offers a brief historical review of insect eating as described by certain Western cultural sources, explores some of the taxonomic ambiguities and challenges surrounding the category ‘insects’, and ultimately argues for more precise and contextual terminology in this both richly traditional and rapidly developing ...

Are edible insects more or less ‘healthy’ than commonly consumed meats? A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over- and undernutrition

Background/Objectives:Insects have been the subject of recent attention as a potentially environmentally sustainable and nutritious alternative to traditional protein sources. The purpose of this paper is to test the hypothesis that insects are nutritionally preferable to meat, using two evaluative tools that are designed to combat over- and under-nutrition.Subjects/Methods:We selected 183 datalines of publicly available data on the nutrient composition of raw cuts and offal of three commonly consumed meats (beef, pork and chicken), and six commercially available insect species, for energy and 12 relevant nutrients. We applied two nutrient profiling tools to this data: The Ofcom model, which is used in the United Kingdom, and the Nutrient Value Score (NVS), which has been used in East Africa. We compared the median nutrient profile scores of different insect species and meat types using non-parametric tests and applied Bonferroni adjustments to assess for statistical significance in differences.Results:Insect nutritional composition showed high diversity between species. According to the Ofcom model, no insects were significantly ‘healthier’ than meat products. The NVS assigned crickets, palm weevil larvae and mealworm a significantly healthier score than beef (P<0.001) and chicken (P<0.001). No insects were statistically less healthy than meat.Conclusions:Insect nutritional composition is highly diverse in comparison with commonly consumed meats. The food category ‘insects’ contains some foods that could potentially exacerbate diet-related public health problems related to over-nutrition, but may be effective in combating under-nutrition.

Do low-carbon-emission diets lead to higher nutritional quality and positive health outcomes? A systematic review of the literature.

OBJECTIVEnTo evaluate what is known about the relative health impacts, in terms of nutrient intake and health outcomes, of diets with reduced greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE).nnnDESIGNnWe systematically reviewed the results of published studies that link GHGE of dietary patterns to nutritional content or associated consequences for health.nnnSETTINGnWe included studies published in English in peer-reviewed journals that included data on actual and modelled diets and enabled a matched comparison of GHGE with nutrient composition and/or health outcomes.nnnSUBJECTSnStudies included used data from subjects from the general population, who had taken part in dietary surveys or prospective cohort studies.nnnRESULTSnWe identified sixteen eligible studies, with data on 100 dietary patterns. We present the results as dietary links between GHGE reduction and impact on nutrients to limit (n 151), micronutrient content (n 158) and health outcomes (n 25). The results were highly heterogeneous. Across all measures of healthiness, 64 % (n 214) of dietary links show that reduced GHGE from diets were associated with worse health indicators. However, some trends emerged. In particular, reduced saturated fat and salt are often associated with reduced GHGE in diets that are low in animal products (57/84). Yet these diets are also often high in sugar (38/55) and low in essential micronutrients (129/158).nnnCONCLUSIONSnDietary scenarios that have lower GHGE compared with average consumption patterns may not result in improvements in nutritional quality or health outcomes. Dietary recommendations for reduced GHGE must also address sugar consumption and micronutrient intake.

How important is the choice of the nutrient profile model used to regulate broadcast advertising of foods to children? A comparison using a targeted data set

Background/Objective:The World Health Assembly recommends that children’s exposure to marketing of unhealthy foods should be reduced. Nutrient profile models have been developed that define ‘unhealthy’ to support regulation of broadcast advertising of foods to children. The level of agreement between these models is not clear. The objective of this study was to measure the agreement between eight nutrient profile models that have been proposed for the regulation of marketing to children over (a) how many and (b) what kind of foods should be permitted to be advertised during television viewed by children.Subjects/Methods:A representative data set of commercials for foods broadcast during television viewed by children in the UK was collected in 2008. The data set consisted of 11u2009763 commercials for 336 different products or brands. This data set was supplemented with nutrition data from company web sites, food packaging and a food composition table, and the nutrient profile models were applied.Results:The percentage of commercials that would be permitted by the different nutrient profile models ranged from 2.1% (0.4%, 3.7%) to 47.4% (42.1%, 52.6%). Half of the pairwise comparisons between models yielded kappa statistics less than 0.2, indicating that there was little agreement between models.Conclusions:Policy makers considering the regulation of broadcast advertising to children should carefully consider the choice of nutrient profile model to support the regulation, as this choice will have considerable influence on the outcome of the regulation.

Wild harvesting declines as pesticides and imports rise: the collection and consumption of insects in contemporary rural Japan

Entomophagy is a traditional element of the Japanese diet. This is also the case in other Asian countries, where there is an increase in demand for edible insects. However, in Westernised countries in a similar economic position to contemporary Japan, cultural prejudices against traditional entomophagy remain strong. This article offers an overview of the current situation regarding entomophagy in rural Japan, a country with a high gross domestic product per capita that has undergone a degree of Westernisation in recent decades. Data collected during 12 months of fieldwork in rural central Japan shows that traditional entomophagy is still present, but the diversity of species consumed has seen a marked decrease when compared to studies undertaken in the 1980s. Grasshoppers (Oxya spp.) and wasp larvae (Vespula spp.) are the main insects consumed in Japan today. Insects hold some negative connotations, especially among younger Japanese. Elderly people are more likely to have consumed edible insects, and con...

Selective insectivory at Toro-Semliki, Uganda: Comparative analyses suggest no ‘savanna’ chimpanzee pattern

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) insectivory across Africa is ubiquitous. Insects provide a significant nutritional payoff and may be important for chimpanzees in dry, open habitats with narrow diets. We tested this hypothesis at Semliki, Uganda, a long-term dry study site. We evaluated prospects for insectivory by measuring insect abundance along de novo transects and trails, monitoring social insect colonies, and surveying available raw materials for elementary technology. We determined the frequency and nature of insectivory through behavioral observation and fecal analysis. We then compared our results with those from 15 other long-term chimpanzee study sites using a cluster analysis. We found that Semliki chimpanzees are one of the most insectivorous populations studied to date in terms of frequency of consumption, but they are very selective in their insectivory, regularly consuming only weaver ants (Oecophylla longinoda) and honey and bees from hives of Apis mellifera. This selectivity obtains despite having a full range of typical prey species available in harvestable quantities. We suggest that Semliki chimpanzees may face ecological time constraints and therefore bias their predation toward prey taxa that can be quickly consumed. Geographical proximity correlated with the results of the cluster analysis, while rainfall, a relatively gross measure of environment, did not. Because broad taxonomic groups of insects were used in analyses, prey availability was unlikely to have a strong effect on this pattern. Instead, we suggest that transmission of cultural knowledge may play a role in determining chimpanzee prey selection across Africa. Further study is needed to test these hypotheses.

Insects as food and feed: European perspectives on recent research and future priorities

This paper discusses the current state and priorities of Europe-based research on insects as food and feed, based on presentations at a workshop held in December 2015, and discussions that followed. We divide research into studies that focus on farming, health and nutrition, and those that prioritise psychological, social and political concerns. Edible insects are not necessarily universally beneficial. However, certain food insects can convert organic waste material, and provide nutrient-rich protein for humans and animals. Recent research is not concordant when trying to identify social and psychological barriers to insects as food in Europe, indicating the complexity of the issue of consumer acceptance. Innovative means of marketing insects as food include 3D printing, scientific comics, and the promotion of rural food culture in an urban setting. Edible insects are intimately connected to strong cultural and regional values, and their increasing commercialisation may empower and/or disenfranchise those who hold such values. We conclude with a discussion about the future priorities of edible insect research in Europe. We acknowledge the political nature of the ‘entomophagy’ movement. With legislative change, the insect food industry potential presents an opportunity to challenge the dynamics of current food systems. We identify the following priorities for future research: the need to better understand environmental impacts of insect procurement on both a regional and global scale, to investigate factors affecting the safety and quality of insect foods, to acknowledge the complexity of consumer acceptance, and to monitor the social and economic impacts of this growing industry.

Entomophagy and Power

Edible insects are being framed as a panacea for health, resource and climate challenges, and the ‘entomophagy movement’ is growing rapidly. Yet as the insect ‘solution’ is scaled up, there is a greater focus on technical innovation and less on the structural inequalities that govern who produces within, who controls, and who benefits from the edible insect trade. We ask: To what extent is the promotion of ‘entomophagy’ challenging or reproducing power relations in global food systems? Drawing on evidence from academia, industry, and the local insect trade in Southeast Asia we critically investigate the rising interest in insects as food. We conducted a systematic literature review, a systematic company and product review of products available online, and fieldwork in Thailand where the edible insect market is growing. Our analysis suggests that the emerging edible insects movement is – generally but not exclusively – reinforcing the existing power relations that many of its actors suggest it could challe...

Nested Houses: Domestication dynamics of human–wasp relations in contemporary rural Japan

BackgroundDomestication is an important and contested concept. Insects are used as food worldwide, and while some have been described as domesticated and even ‘semi-domesticated’, the assumptions and implications of this designation are not clear. The purpose of this paper is to explore these aspects of insect domestication, and broader debates in domestication studies, through the case of edible wasps in central rural Japan.MethodsBoth authors conducted ethnographic fieldwork with communities in central rural Japan. Fieldwork comprised participant observation, semi-structured interviews, quantitative surveys and a review of resources including the personal and public records of wasp collectors.ResultsThe practice of keeping wasps in hive boxes has historical roots and has changed significantly within living memory. Current attempts to further develop the practice involve collectors’ great efforts to keep new queens during their hibernation. Collectors have also tried, still without success, to keep wasps living within a human-made enclosure for their entire life cycle. These and other practices are costly in both time and money for collectors, who emphasise enjoyment as their primary motivation. At the same time, they also engage in practices such as pesticide use that they recognise as damaging to wasp ecology.ConclusionsThese practices can be understood to some extent in domesticatory terms, and in terms of care. We develop a framework for understanding domesticatory practices of insect care, discuss how this case contributes to ongoing debates within domestication studies, and recommend further research to be pursued.

Chimpanzees at Semliki Ignore Oil Palms

on galagos has (thus far) been observed only in a single immigrant matriline of the Kasakela community. Red colobus, the prey of choice for many chimpanzee populations in East Africa, are not present at either Assirik or Fongoli where predation on galagos appears to be more common than elsewhere. McGrew