Cherumuttathu H. Suresh

Comparison of aromatic NH···π, OH···π, and CH···π interactions of alanine using MP2, CCSD, and DFT methods.

A comparison of the performance of various density functional methods including long‐range corrected and dispersion corrected methods [MPW1PW91, B3LYP, B3PW91, B97‐D, B1B95, MPWB1K, M06‐2X, SVWN5, ωB97XD, long‐range correction (LC)‐ωPBE, and CAM‐B3LYP using 6‐31+G(d,p) basis set] in the study of CH···π, OH···π, and NH···π interactions were done using weak complexes of neutral (A) and cationic (A+) forms of alanine with benzene by taking the Møller–Plesset (MP2)/6‐31+G(d,p) results as the reference. Further, the binding energies of the neutral alanine–benzene complexes were assessed at coupled cluster (CCSD)/6‐31G(d,p) method. Analysis of the molecular geometries and interaction energies at density functional theory (DFT), MP2, CCSD methods and CCSD(T) single point level reveal that MP2 is the best overall performer for noncovalent interactions giving accuracy close to CCSD method. MPWB1K fared better in interaction energy calculations than other DFT methods. In the case of M06‐2X, SVWN5, and the dispersion corrected B97‐D, the interaction energies are significantly overrated for neutral systems compared to other methods. However, for cationic systems, B97‐D yields structures and interaction energies similar to MP2 and MPWB1K methods. Among the long‐range corrected methods, LC‐ωPBE and CAM‐B3LYP methods show close agreement with MP2 values while ωB97XD energies are notably higher than MP2 values.

Which density functional is close to CCSD accuracy to describe geometry and interaction energy of small noncovalent dimers? A benchmark study using Gaussian09

A benchmark study on all possible density functional theory (DFT) methods in Gaussian09 is done to locate functionals that agree well with CCSD/aug‐cc‐pVTZ geometry and Ave‐CCSD(T)/(Q‐T) interaction energy (Eint) for small non‐covalently interacting molecular dimers in “dispersion‐dominated” (class 1), “dipole‐induced dipole” (class 2), and “dipole‐dipole” (class 3) classes. A DFT method is recommended acceptable if the geometry showed close agreement to CCSD result (RMSD < 0.045) and Eint was within 80–120% accuracy. Among 382 tested functionals, 1–46% gave good geometry, 13–44% gave good Eint, while 1–33% satisfied geometry and energy criteria. Further screening to locate the best performing functionals for all the three classes was made by counting the acceptable values of energy and geometry given by each functionals. The meta‐generalized gradient approximation (GGA) functional M06L was the best performer with total 14 hits; seven acceptable energies and seven acceptable geometries. This was the only functional “recommended” for at least two dimers in each class. The functionals M05, B2PLYPD, B971, mPW2PLYPD, PBEB95, and CAM‐B3LYP gave 11 hits while PBEhB95, PW91B95, Wb97x, BRxVP86, BRxP86, HSE2PBE, HSEh1PBE, PBE1PBE, PBEh1PBE, and PW91TPSS gave 10 hits. Among these, M05, B971, mPW2PLYPD, Wb97x, and PW91TPSS were among the “recommended” list of at least one dimer from each class. Long‐range correction (LC) of Hirao and coworkers to exchange‐correlation functionals showed massive improvement in geometry and Eint. The best performing LC‐functionals were LC‐G96KCIS and LC‐PKZBPKZB. Our results predict that M06L is the most trustworthy DFT method in Gaussian09 to study small non‐covalently interacting systems.

Use of Molecular Electrostatic Potential at the Carbene Carbon as a Simple and Efficient Electronic Parameter of N-heterocyclic Carbenes†

Topographical analysis of the molecular electrostatic potential (MESP) has been carried out for a variety of N-heterocyclic carbenes at the B3LYP, BP86, and M05 levels of density functional theory (DFT) using a 6-311++G** basis set. The electron rich character of the carbene carbon is assessed in terms of the absolute minimum of the MESP at the carbene lone pair region (V(min)), as well as the MESP at the carbene nucleus (V(C)). A linear relationship is established between the V(C) and Tolman electronic parameter (TEP) which suggested the use of the former as a simple and efficient descriptor for the electron donating power of N-heterocyclic carbene ligands toward metal coordination. The V(min) of the carbene also showed good correlation with TEP. However, the deviation from linearity was higher than V(C)-TEP correlation, and the reason for this was attributed to the steric effect of N-substituents at the lone pair region. The greater coordinating power of N-heterocyclic carbenes over phosphines is explained on the basis of deeper V(min) values obtained for the former, and in fact even the V(min) of the least electron rich N-heterocyclic carbene is comparable to the highly electron rich phosphine ligands. Thus the MESP topographical approach presented herein offers quantification of the inherent electron donating power of a free N-heterocyclic carbene ligand.

Assessment of stereoelectronic factors that influence the CO2 fixation ability of N-heterocyclic carbenes: a DFT study.

The CO(2) fixation ability of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) has been assessed on the basis of electronic and steric properties of the N- and C-substituents, measured in terms of molecular electrostatic potential minimum, observed at the carbene lone pair region of NHC (V(min1)) as well as at the carboxylate region of the NHC-CO(2) adduct (V(min2)). Both V(min1) and V(min2) are found to be simple and efficient descriptors of the stereoelectronic effect of NHCs. The V(min)-based analysis also proved that the stereoelectronic effect of N- and C-substituents is additive. When only C-substituents are present in NHC, its CO(2) affinity solely depends on the electronic effect, whereas if the N-center bears the substituents, the steric factor plays a major role in the carboxylation/decarboxylation process. For standard substituents, maximum CO(2) binding energy of 18.0 kcal/mol is observed for the most electron-donating combination of NMe(2) as the C-substituent and Me as the N-substituent. Introduction of ring strain through five-membered ring fusion at the NC bond slightly increased the electron-rich character of the carbene lone pair and also enhanced the CO(2) binding energy to 20.9 kcal/mol. To further improve the CO(2) fixing ability of NHCs, we have proposed the use of CH(2)OH, CH(2)NHCOMe, and CH(2)NHPh as N-substituents, as they participate in intramolecular hydrogen bond interaction with the carboxylate. With the new strategy, considerable improvement in the CO(2) binding energy (26.5 to 33.0 kcal/mol) is observed.

Molecular electrostatics for probing lone pair–π interactions

An electrostatics-based approach has been proposed for probing the weak interactions between lone pair containing molecules and π deficient molecular systems. For electron-rich molecules, the negative minima in molecular electrostatic potential (MESP) topography give the location of electron localization and the MESP value at the minimum (Vmin) quantifies the electron-rich character of that region. Interactive behavior of a lone pair bearing molecule with electron deficient π-systems, such as hexafluorobenzene, 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, 2,4,6-trifluoro-1,3,5-triazine and 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene explored within DFT brings out good correlation of the lone pair-π interaction energy (E(int)) with the Vmin value of the electron-rich system. Such interaction is found to be portrayed well with the Electrostatic Potential for Intermolecular Complexation (EPIC) model. On the basis of the precise location of MESP minimum, a prediction for the orientation of a lone pair bearing molecule with an electron deficient π-system is possible in the majority of the cases studied.

Basis set dependence of the molecular electrostatic potential topography. A case study of substituted benzenes

The basis set dependence of the topographical structure of the molecular electrostatic potential (MESP), as well as the effect of substituents on the MESP distribution, has been investigated with substituted benzenes as test cases. The molecules are studied at HF-SCF 3i?½21G and 6i?½31G** levels, with a further MESP topographical investigation at the 3i?½21G, double-zeta, 6i?½31G*, 6i?½31G**, double-zeta polarized and triple-zeta polarized levels. The MESP critical points for a 3i?½21G optimized/6i?½31G** basis are similar to the corresponding 6i?½31G** optimized/6i?½31G** ones. More generally, the qualitative features of the MESP topography computed at the polarized level are independent of the level at which optimization is carried out. For a proper representation of oxygen lone pairs, however, optimization using a polarized basis set is required. The nature of the substituent drastically changes the MESP distribution over the phenyl ring. The values and positions of MESP minima indicate the most active site for electrophilic attack. This point is strengthened by a study of disubstituted benzenes.

A Molecular Electrostatic Potential Analysis of Hydrogen, Halogen, and Dihydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen, halogen, and dihydrogen bonds in weak, medium and strong regimes (<1 to ∼ 60 kcal/mol) have been investigated for several intermolecular donor-acceptor (D-A) complexes at ab initio MP4//MP2 method coupled with atoms-in-molecules and molecular electrostatic potential (MESP) approaches. Electron density ρ at bond critical point correlates well with interaction energy (Enb) for each homogeneous sample of complexes, but its applicability to the entire set of complexes is not satisfactory. Analysis of MESP minimum (V(min)) and MESP at the nuclei (Vn) shows that in all D-A complexes, MESP of A becomes more negative and that of D becomes less negative suggesting donation of electrons from D to A leading to electron donor-acceptor (eDA) interaction between A and D. MESP based parameter ΔΔVn measures donor-acceptor strength of the eDA interactions as it shows a good linear correlation with Enb for all D-A complexes (R(2) = 0.976) except the strongly bound bridged structures. The bridged structures are classified as donor-acceptor-donor complexes. MESP provides a clear evidence for hydrogen, halogen, and dihydrogen bond formation and defines them as eDA interactions in which hydrogen acts as electron acceptor in hydrogen and dihydrogen bonds while halogen acts as electron acceptor in halogen bonds.

Lone Pairs: An Electrostatic Viewpoint

A clear-cut definition of lone pairs has been offered in terms of characteristics of minima in molecular electrostatic potential (MESP). The largest eigenvalue and corresponding eigenvector of the Hessian at the minima are shown to distinguish lone pair regions from the other types of electron localization (such as π bonds). A comparative study of lone pairs as depicted by various other scalar fields such as the Laplacian of electron density and electron localization function is made. Further, an attempt has been made to generalize the definition of lone pairs to the case of cations.

Quantification of the Trans Influence in Hypervalent Iodine Complexes

The trans influence of various X ligands in hypervalent iodine(III) complexes of the type CF(3)[I(X)Cl] has been quantified using the trans I-Cl bond length (d(X)), the electron density ρ(r) at the (3, -1) bond critical point of the trans I-Cl bond, and topological features of the molecular electrostatic potential (MESP). The MESP minimum at the Cl lone pair region (V(min)) is a sensitive measure of the trans influence. The trans influence of X ligands in hypervalent iodine(V) complexes is smaller than that in iodine(III) complexes, while the relative ordering of this influence is the same in both complexes. In CF(3)[I(X)Y] complexes, the mutual trans influence due to the trans disposition of the X and Y ligands is quantified using the energy E(XY) of the isodesmic reaction CF(3)[I(X)Cl] + CF(3)[I(Y)Cl] → CF(3)[I(Cl)Cl] + CF(3)[I(X)Y]. E(XY) is predicted with good accuracy using the trans-influence parameters of X and Y, measured in terms of d(X), ρ(r), or V(min). The bond dissociation energy (E(d)) of X or Y in CF(3)[I(X)Y] is significantly influenced by the trans influence as well as the mutual trans influence. This is confirmed by deriving an empirical equation to predict E(d) using one of the trans-influence parameters (d(X), ρ(r), or V(min)) and the mutual trans-influence parameter E(XY) for a large number of complexes. The quantified values of both the trans influence and the mutual trans-influence parameters may find use in assessing the stability of hypervalent iodine compounds as well as in the design of new stable hypervalent complexes. Knowledge about the I-X bond dissociation energies will be useful for explaining the reactivity of hypervalent iodine complexes and the mechanism of their reactions.

Typical aromatic noncovalent interactions in proteins: A theoretical study using phenylalanine

A systematic study of CH···π, OH···π, NH···π, and cation···π interactions has been done using complexes of phenylalanine in its cationic, anionic, neutral, and zwitterionic forms with CH4, H2O, NH3, and NH  4+ at B3LYP, MP2, MPWB1K, and M06‐2X levels of theory. All noncovalent interactions are identified by the presence of bond critical points (bcps) of electron density (ρ(r)) and the values of ρ(r) showed linear relationship to the binding energies (Etotal). The estimated Etotal from supermolecule, fragmentation, and ρ(r) approaches suggest that cation···π interactions are in the range of 36 to 46 kcal/mol, whereas OH···π, and NH···π interactions have comparable strengths of 6 to 27 kcal/mol and CH···π interactions are the weakest (0.62–2.55 kcal/mol). Among different forms of phenylalanine, cationic form generally showed the highest noncovalent interactions at all levels of theory. Cooperativity of multiple interactions is analyzed on the basis of ρ(r) at bcps which suggests that OH···π and NH···π interactions show positive, whereas CH···π and cation···π interactions exhibit negative cooperativity with respect to the side chain hydrogen bond interactions. In general, side chain interactions are strengthened as a result of aromatic interaction. Solvation has no significant effect on the overall geometry of the complex though slight weakening of noncovalent interactions by 1–2 kcal/mol is observed. An assessment of the four levels of theory studied herein suggests that both MPWB1K and M06‐2X give better performance for noncovalent interactions. The results also support the fact that B3LYP is inadequate for the study of weak interactions.