Cheryl A. Coker

Implications for Variability of Practice from Pedagogy and Motor Learning Perspectives: Finding a Common Ground

The discourse contained in this article is the result of an on-going discussion about “providing variability of practice” between professionals from different areas of study within kinesiology. The impetus for this discussion arose from a lack of common terminology, differing views, and the sometimes contrasting research and professional practices promoted in the areas of pedagogy and motor learning. Since many undergraduate and graduate level students enroll in courses in both motor learning and pedagogy, it is imperative that professionals seek a common ground that leads to an understanding of the areas where the two perspectives converge or differ. A question and answer format, from the viewpoints of pedagogy and motor learning, was used to guide the discussion related to variability of practice and its research and practical applications in the teaching and learning process of motor skills.

Developing Skill-Analysis Competency in Physical Education Teachers

Given the known relationship between physical inactivity and chronic disease (US Dept. of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2000, 2001), learning more about antecedents for physical activity engagement is an important research priority. In this vein, a number of studies have found a relationship between perceived and actual motor skill competency and physical activity engagement (Burton & Martens, 1986; Carroll & Loumidis, 2001; Feltz & Petlichkoff, 1983; Roberts, Kleiber, & Duda, 1981). These findings call for the need to revisit the priority placed on motor skill acquisition in K–12 physical education curriculum and the prerequisite instructional practice of skill analysis. The purpose of this article is to generate renewed commitment toward developing skill-analysis competency in physical education teachers.

Influence of target location on coincident timing performance.

This study examined the influence of two stimulus-presentation methods on coincident timing performance. 50 participants performed a button press and striking task in coincidence with a target stimulus. Participants were randomly divided into either the Terminating Group, whose target light was the last in the series, or the Apparent Motion Group, whose target was not the final light in the series and allowed the apparent motion of the stimulus to continue. 20 trials at each of three velocities, 4, 8, and 12 mph, were randomly performed for each task. The analysis yielded no significant differences between groups, indicating that coincident timing performance was not dependent on the method of stimulus presentation.

Stability of the Iceberg Profile as a function of perceived difficulty in defeating an opponent.

9 starters and 8 nonstarters of a university womens softball team completed the Profile of Mood States prior to playing the team perceived to be the most and least difficult to defeat in their conference. A significant interaction indicated that nonstarters displayed higher fatigue prior to playing the opponent perceived as most difficult to defeat. In addition, significant mean differences were found between starters and nonstarters on constructs of Anger, Confusion, Tension, and Depression, suggesting that nonstarters may not share same psychological profile as their peers who start.

Direction of an Approaching Stimulus on Coincident Timing Performance of a Ballistic Striking Task

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of stimulus direction and velocity on the coincident timing performance of a ballistic striking task. 26 subjects randomly performed 20 trials at each of two stimulus velocities (4 and 8 mph) and two striking variations (moving with an approaching stimulus or in opposition to it). Analysis indicated the direction of an approaching stimulus does not appear to influence the coincident timing of a ballistic striking action.

Context and test-retest reliability of Kolb's learning style inventory

Two groups of students enrolled in a university physical activity course volunteered to complete Kolbs Learning Style Inventory at the beginning of and the end of a semester to estimate test-retest reliability. A control group (n = 129) completed the inventory in its original form while the experimental group (n = 124) completed the same test but with modified instructions providing a more specific focus. Test-retest reliability, assessed using a Pearson product-moment correlation, improved for the group given instructions which specified a contextual focus.

Teaching Approach Depends on Skill Level

ickers, Livingston, UmerisBohnert, and Holden (1999) explored the effectiveness of two current, comprehensive teaching approaches in helping college students learn the baseball swing. A total of 249 undergraduates were randomly assigned to either (1) a behavioral training group that received simple to complex instruction, variable practice, and an abundance of feedback, or (2) a decision training group that received complex instruction, variable practice, and delayed, reduced feedback.The researchers pre-tested the hitting skills of participants in both groups and categorized them as novice, intermediate, or advanced. Participants underwent four weeks of batting-cage training in which their task was to hit baseballs that were thrown at a speed of 58.4 miles per hour by a pitching machine. During week one, the behavioral training group received 50 minutes of instruction from an expert coach who demonstrated the basic components of a swing.This group performed each component in a simple-to-complex progression of drills, during which an abundance of feedback was given, and finished the days practice by hitting soft pitches into a net. The decision training group listened to a 20-minute instructional audiotape, followed by a 30-minute videotape of an expert baseball player in action.The video footage showed the player swinging the bat in real time, in slow motion, with a stick-figure overlay, and with auditory augmentation upon contact with the ball. In addition, the video included views from the left, right, and behind the player, making it possible for the participants to observe the hitters technique and the characteristics of the pitch. In all training weeks except week two, participants received variable practice by hitting two sets of 20 pitches from a pitching machine. Practice was considered to be variable since the ball was delivered to a different area in the strike zone each time. During practices, the behavioral training group received abundant feedback while the decision training group received limited feedback. Week two consisted of two sets of 20 and one set of five pitches for the behavioral training group, while the decision training group received one set of 40 and one set of five pitches. During the third and fourth training weeks, a video-feedback session on the swings that the participants had performed in weeks one and two was incorporated. Both groups were given a checklist of eight hitting cues. The behavioral group analyzed their swings relative to these cues and received extensive feedback on how to improve.The decision group performed a frame-by-frame comparison of their technique with that of a SyberVision model and received limited feedback. After a one week break from training, the participants took a transfer test in which balls were pitched from the machine at speeds of 52.2, 58.4, and 64.6 miles per hour. In addition, hitting goals, bonus marks, and awards were given to simulate competitive conditions. The results of the test revealed that both groups had improved upon their hitting skills since the pre-test. However, behavioral training was found to be more effective for novice hitters with regard to both acquisition and transfer, while the intermediate and advanced hitters in the decision training group outperformed their counterparts in the behavioral training group on the transfer test. These results suggest that the most effective learning environment for novices involves instruction presented in a simple-to-complex progression that incorporates variable practice and provides students with an abundant amount of feedback. However, a learning environment that incorporates complex instruction, variable practice, and limited feedback is more effective in preparing intermediate and advanced learners to perform skills in new and challenging conditions such as those presented in competition. It should be noted that this latter finding does not seem to hold true during the learning period itself; motivational techniques must be used to assure intermediate and advanced learners that the end result of such training will be improved performance.