Chiara Trigili

Synthesis and Antimitotic and Tubulin Interaction Profiles of Novel Pinacol Derivatives of Podophyllotoxins

Several pinacol derivatives of podophyllotoxins bearing different side chains and functions at C-7 were synthesized through reductive cross-coupling of podophyllotoxone and several aldehydes and ketones. While possessing a hydroxylated chain at C-7, the compounds retained their respective hydroxyl group with either the 7α (podo) or 7β (epipodo) configuration. Along with pinacols, some C-7 alkylidene and C-7 alkyl derivatives were also prepared. Cytotoxicities against neoplastic cells followed by cell cycle arrest and cellular microtubule disruption were evaluated and mechanistically characterized through tubulin polymerization inhibition and assays of binding to the colchicine site. Compounds of the epipodopinacol (7β-OH) series behaved similarly to podophyllotoxin in all the assays and proved to be the most potent inhibitors. Significantly, 7α-isopropyl-7-deoxypodophyllotoxin (20), without any hydroxyl function, appeared as a promising lead compound for a novel type of tubulin polymerization inhibitors. Experimental results were in overall agreement with modeling and docking studies performed on representative compounds of each series.

Zampanolide, a Potent New Microtubule-Stabilizing Agent, Covalently Reacts with the Taxane Luminal Site in Tubulin α,β-Heterodimers and Microtubules

Zampanolide and its less active analog dactylolide compete with paclitaxel for binding to microtubules and represent a new class of microtubule-stabilizing agent (MSA). Mass spectrometry demonstrated that the mechanism of action of both compounds involved covalent binding to β-tubulin at residues N228 and H229 in the taxane site of the microtubule. Alkylation of N228 and H229 was also detected in α,β-tubulin dimers. However, unlike cyclostreptin, the other known MSA that alkylates β-tubulin, zampanolide was a strong MSA. Modeling the structure of the adducts, using the NMR-derived dactylolide conformation, indicated that the stabilizing activity of zampanolide is likely due to interactions with the M-loop. Our results strongly support the existence of the luminal taxane site of microtubules in tubulin dimers and suggest that microtubule nucleation induction by MSAs may proceed through an allosteric mechanism.

Insights into the interaction of discodermolide and docetaxel with tubulin. Mapping the binding sites of microtubule-stabilizing agents by using an integrated NMR and computational approach.

The binding interactions of two antitumor agents that target the paclitaxel site, docetaxel and discodermolide, to unassembled α/β-tubulin heterodimers and microtubules have been studied using biochemical and NMR techniques. The use of discodermolide as a water-soluble paclitaxel biomimetic and extensive NMR experiments allowed the detection of binding of microtubule-stabilizing agents to unassembled tubulin α/β-heterodimers. The bioactive 3D structures of docetaxel and discodermolide bound to α/β-heterodimers were elucidated and compared to those bound to microtubules, where subtle changes in the conformations of docetaxel in its different bound states were evident. Moreover, the combination of experimental TR-NOE and STD NMR data with CORCEMA-ST calculations indicate that docetaxel and discodermolide target an additional binding site at the pore of the microtubules, which is different from the internal binding site at the lumen previously determined by electron crystallography. Binding to this pore site can then be considered as the first ligand-protein recognition event that takes place in advance of the drug internalization process and interaction with the lumen of the microtubules.

Structure-activity relationships of novel substituted naphthalene diimides as anticancer agents.

Novel 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic diimide (NDI) derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their antiproliferative activity on a wide number of different tumor cell lines. The prototypes of the present series were derivatives 1 and 2 characterized by interesting biological profiles as anticancer agents. The present investigation expands on the study of structure-activity relationships of prototypes 1 and 2, namely, the influence of the different substituents of the phenyl rings on the biological activity. Derivatives 3-22, characterized by a different substituent on the aromatic rings and/or a different chain length varying from two to three carbon units, were synthesized and evaluated for their cytostatic and cytotoxic activities. The most interesting compound was 20, characterized by a linker of three methylene units and a 2,3,4-trimethoxy substituent on the two aromatic rings. It displayed antiproliferative activity in the submicromolar range, especially against some different cell lines, the ability to inhibit Taq polymerase and telomerase, to trigger caspase activation by a possible oxidative mechanism, to downregulate ERK 2 protein and to inhibit ERKs phosphorylation, without acting directly on microtubules and tubuline. Its theoretical recognition against duplex and quadruplex DNA structures have been compared to experimental thermodynamic measurements and by molecular modeling investigation leading to putative binding modes. Taken together these findings contribute to define this compound as potential Multitarget-Directed Ligands interacting simultaneously with different biological targets.

Design and Synthesis of Pironetin Analogues with Simplified Structure and Study of Their Interactions with Microtubules

The preparation of a series of pironetin analogues with simplified structure is described. Their cytotoxic activity and their interactions with tubulin have been investigated. It has been found that, while less active than the parent molecule, the pironetin analogues still share the mechanism of action of the latter and compete for the same binding site to α-tubulin. Variations in the configurations of their stereocenters do not translate into relevant differences between biological activities.

Molecular recognition of peloruside A by microtubules. The C24 primary alcohol is essential for biological activity.

Peloruside is a microtubule‐stabilizing agent that targets the same site as laulimalide. It binds to microtubules with a 1:1 stoichiometry and with a binding affinity in the low‐μM range; thereby reducing the number of microtubular protofilaments in the same way as paclitaxel. Although the binding affinity of the compound is comparable to that of the low‐affinity stabilizing agent sarcodictyin, peloruside is more active in inducing microtubule assembly and is more cytotoxic to tumor cells; this suggests that the peloruside site is a more effective site for stabilizing microtubules. Acetylation of the C24 hydroxyl group results in inactive compounds. According to molecular modeling, this substitution at the C24 hydroxyl group presumably disrupts the interaction of the side chain with Arg320 in the putative binding site on α‐tubulin. The binding epitope of peloruside on microtubules has been studied by using NMR spectroscopic techniques, and is compatible with the same binding site.

Probing the Pore Drug Binding Site of Microtubules with Fluorescent Taxanes: Evidence of Two Binding Poses

The pore site in microtubules has been studied with the use of Hexaflutax, a fluorescent probe derived from paclitaxel. The compound is active in cells with similar effects to paclitaxel, indicating that the pore may be a target to microtubule stabilizing agents. While other taxanes bind microtubules in a monophasic way, thus indicating a single type of sites, Hexaflutax association is biphasic. Analysis of the phases indicates that two different binding sites are detected, reflecting two different modes of binding, which could arise from different arrangements of the taxane or fluorescein moieties in the pore. Association of the 4-4-20 antifluorescein monoclonal antibody-Hexaflutax complex to microtubules remains biphasic, thus indicating that the two phases observed arise from two different poses of the taxane moiety.

Taxanes with high potency inducing tubulin assembly overcome tumoural cell resistances

We have found that four taxanes with chemical modifications at positions C10 and C13 were active against all types of taxane resistant cell lines, resistant by P-gp overexpression, by mutations in the β-tubulin binding site or by overexpression of the highly dynamic βIII-tubulin isotype. We have characterized the interaction of taxanes with high activity on chemotherapy resistant tumoural cells with microtubules, and also studied their cellular effects. The biochemical property enhanced in comparison with other taxanes is their potency at inducing tubulin assembly, despite the fact that their interactions with the microtubule binding sites (pore and luminal) are similar as studied by NMR and SAXS. A differential interaction with the S7-S9 loop (M-loop) is responsible for their enhanced assembly induction properties. The chemical changes in the structure also induce changes in the thermodynamic properties of the interaction, indicating a higher hydrophilicity and also explaining their properties on P-gp and βIII overexpressing cells and on mutant cells. The effect of the compounds on the microtubular network is different from those observed with the classical (docetaxel and paclitaxel) taxanes, inducing different bundling in cells with microtubules being very short, indicating a very fast nucleation effect and reflecting their high assembly induction power.

Mechanism of action of the cytotoxic macrolides amphidinolide X and J.

Microtubules and actin filaments play important biological roles in mitosis, cytokinesis, cell signaling, intracellular transport, and cell motility of eukaryotic cells. 2] Molecules that target these cytoskeleton proteins are potential antitumor or anti-HIV agents. In fact, there are several clinical drugs that target the stabilization (paclitaxel-like behavior) or destabilization (vinca-like or colchicine-like behavior) of microtubules, specifically their heterodimeric component, a,b-tubulin. On the other hand, no actin-targeting drug has yet entered clinical studies. Amphidinolides are a series of structurally dissimilar cytotoxic macrolides isolated from dinoflagellates (Amphidinium sp.). Their mechanisms of action are unknown, except that for one that has one of the largest rings, the 26-membered macrolide amphidinolide H (Amp-H, MW = 562.73) ; this shows cytotoxicity in the nanomolar range against several carcinoma cell lines. Amp-H drastically and irreversibly deformed actin fibers; the actin fibers completely disappeared, and only a few disorganized aggregates remained in the cells. Amp-H induced multinucleated cells by disrupting actin organization (polyploid cells). In vitro assays on purified actin indicated that Amp-H stimulates actin polymerization, and stabilizes the actin filaments (F-actin). 11] In contrast, most of the smallest amphidinolides are cytotoxic in the micromolar range. For example, amphidinolide X (1, MW = 448.59) [12] and amphidinolide J (4, MW = 390.56) [13] have IC50 values of 1.3 and 6.9 mm, respectively, against the lymphocytic leukemia cell line L1210, although their mechanisms of action have not been reported. As these small amphidinolides are easier to synthesize than the larger molecules, 16] it would be desirable to identify their binding sites. Appropriate chemical modifications of these natural products might afford leads with activities below 0.1 mm that might eventually give rise to new antitumor agents. We report here biological studies of 1, the structurally related synthetic diolides 2 and 3, and 4 (Scheme 1). We examined their effect on the proliferation of A2780 (human ovarian carcinoma) and of LoVo (human colon carcinoma) cell lines, as well as on the cytoskeleton proteins tubulin, actin, and intermediate filaments in A549 (lung carcinoma) and PtK2 cells. Their effects on actin polymerization was then studied in vitro.

Structural Determinants of the Dictyostatin Chemotype for Tubulin Binding Affinity and Antitumor Activity Against Taxane- and Epothilone-Resistant Cancer Cells

A combined biochemical, structural, and cell biology characterization of dictyostatin is described, which enables an improved understanding of the structural determinants responsible for the high-affinity binding of this anticancer agent to the taxane site in microtubules (MTs). The study reveals that this macrolide is highly optimized for MT binding and that only a few of the structural modifications featured in a library of synthetic analogues resulted in small gains in binding affinity. The high efficiency of the dictyostatin chemotype in overcoming various kinds of clinically relevant resistance mechanisms highlights its potential for therapeutic development for the treatment of drug-resistant tumors. A structural explanation is advanced to account for the synergy observed between dictyostatin and taxanes on the basis of their differential effects on the MT lattice. The X-ray crystal structure of a tubulin–dictyostatin complex and additional molecular modeling have allowed the rationalization of the structure–activity relationships for a set of synthetic dictyostatin analogues, including the highly active hybrid 12 with discodermolide. Altogether, the work reported here is anticipated to facilitate the improved design and synthesis of more efficacious dictyostatin analogues and hybrids with other MT-stabilizing agents.