Chih-Hang Wu

Viral protein targeting to the cortical endoplasmic reticulum is required for cell–cell spreading in plants

Sorting signal-mediated oligomerization and localization of the viral protein TGBp3 to curved ER tubules is essential for viral movement between cells in plants.

Rerouting of Plant Late Endocytic Trafficking Toward a Pathogen Interface

A number of plant pathogenic and symbiotic microbes produce specialized cellular structures that invade host cells where they remain enveloped by host‐derived membranes. The mechanisms underlying the biogenesis and functions of host–microbe interfaces are poorly understood. Here, we show that plant late endocytic trafficking is diverted toward the extrahaustorial membrane (EHM); a host–pathogen interface that develops in plant cells invaded by Irish potato famine pathogen Phytophthora infestans. A late endosome and tonoplast marker protein Rab7 GTPase RabG3c, but not a tonoplast‐localized sucrose transporter, is recruited to the EHM, suggesting specific rerouting of vacuole‐targeted late endosomes to a host–pathogen interface. We revealed the dynamic nature of this process by showing that, upon activation, a cell surface immune receptor traffics toward the haustorial interface. Our work provides insight into the biogenesis of the EHM and reveals dynamic processes that recruit membrane compartments and immune receptors to this host–pathogen interface.

The “sensor domains” of plant NLR proteins: more than decoys?

Our conceptual and mechanistic understanding of how plant nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR or NB-LRR) proteins perceive pathogens continues to advance. NLRs are intracellular multidomain proteins that recognize pathogen-derived effectors either directly or indirectly (Jones and Dangl, 2006; Van Der Hoorn and Kamoun, 2008; Dodds and Rathjen, 2010; Cesari et al., 2014). In the direct model, the NLR protein binds a pathogen effector or serves as a substrate for the effectors enzymatic activity. In the indirect model, the NLR recognizes modifications of additional host protein(s) targeted by the effector. Such intermediate host protein(s) are often called effector targets (ETs). However, given that effectors can act on multiple host targets, the specific protein that mediates recognition by the NLR may not be the effectors operative target and may have evolved to function as a decoy dedicated to pathogen detection. This “decoy” model contrasts with the “guard” model in which the NLR perceives the effector via its action on its operative target (Van Der Hoorn and Kamoun, 2008). In a recent article, Cesari et al. (2014) elegantly synthesized the literature to propose a novel model of how NLRs recognize effectors termed the “integrated decoy” hypothesis. Based on new data from several pathosystems, it appears that some NLRs recognize pathogen effectors through extraneous domains that have evolved by duplication of an ET followed by fusion into the NLR. This NLR-integrated domain mimics the effector binding/substrate property of the original ET to enable pathogen detection. In addition, these “receptor” or “sensor” NLRs typically partner with NLR proteins with a classic architecture that function as signaling partners required for the resistance response (Eitas and Dangl, 2010; Cesari et al., 2013, 2014; Williams et al., 2014). Here, we expand on the Cesari et al. (2014) model and introduce the possibility that NLR-integrated domains do not have to be decoys (as in defective mimics) of the effectors operative target. Indeed, in addition to binding effectors or serving as their substrates, operative targets carry a biochemical activity that is modulated by the effector. The perturbation of this activity by the effector leads to effector-triggered susceptibility, an activity often related to immunity (Boller and He, 2009; Dodds and Rathjen, 2010; Win et al., 2012). Clearly NLR-integrated domains must retain the “sensor” activity of the ancestral ET, but they could also retain their biochemical activity, continuing to function in the effector-targeted pathway even as an extraneous domain within a classic NLR architecture. At present, this possibility cannot be discounted given that the biochemical activities of the ancestral ETs and their NLR-integrated counterparts are generally unknown. Additionally, when NLR-fusions occurred recently, there may not have been enough time for the integrated ET to lose its original function and evolve into a decoy. We therefore propose to refer to the extraneous domains of classic NLR proteins described by Cesari et al. (2014) as sensor domains (SD), a term that is agnostic to any potential biochemical activities of the integrated module. How to test whether or not SDs are decoys? We propose a straightforward genetic test that can reject the decoy hypothesis. Isogenic plants either carrying or lacking the NLR-SD can be challenged with a pathogen strain that lacks the matching avirulence effector (Figure ​(Figure1).1). There are several possible outcomes. If the NLR-SD isogenic lines do not differ in their response to the pathogen without the matching effector, the result is inconclusive and the null decoy hypothesis cannot be rejected. If the presence of NLR-SD without the known matching effector shows higher levels of resistance, and there are no signs of typical effector-triggered immunity, then the SD is likely to have retained the ET biochemical activity and contributes to basal immunity in a manner analogous to the ancestral ET. An even more interesting result would be if in the absence of the matching effector, the NLR-SD line is more susceptible as has been shown for several ETs (Van Schie and Takken, 2014). In this scenario, another (unrecognized) effector might still be targeting the original biochemical activity of the SD domain. It would be conceptually fascinating if an NLR that functions as a resistance (R) gene against certain strains of a pathogen becomes a susceptibility (S) gene when exposed to other strains. Once again, this concept emphasizes how the outcome of plant-pathogen interactions is so critically dependent on the genotypes of the interacting organisms—a gene that has a certain impact in a particular genetic combination can have the exact opposite effect in another (Jones and Dangl, 2006; Van Der Hoorn and Kamoun, 2008; Dodds and Rathjen, 2010; Win et al., 2012). Figure 1 A genetic test to inform whether NLR-SD proteins have retained a biochemical activity independent of perception of an avirulence effector. In the top panel, isogenic plants either carrying or lacking the NLR-SD display differential resistance to a pathogen ... Our goal is not to engage in an exercise in semantics. However, we wish to avoid conceptually restrictive terminology and urge the plant-microbe interactions community to test a rich spectrum of models and hypotheses. The proposed sensor domain terminology would accommodate this breadth of ideas. Ultimately, it may very well turn out that the majority, if not all, of the NLR integrated domains have lost their biochemical activities and have evolved into decoys. Also, it is possible that the sensor domain has already evolved into a decoy prior to recombination into a NLR. Nonetheless, further genetic and biochemical experiments are required to determine whether sensor domains of NLR-SDs are decoys or biochemically functional duplicates of their ancestral ETs.

Helper NLR proteins NRC2a/b and NRC3 but not NRC1 are required for Pto‐mediated cell death and resistance in Nicotiana benthamiana

Plants defend against pathogens using both cell surface andintracellular immune receptors (Dodds & Rathjen, 2010; Winet al., 2012). Plant cell surface receptors include receptor-likekinases (RLKs) and receptor-like proteins (RLPs), which respondto pathogen-derived apoplastic molecules (Boller & Felix, 2009;Thomma et al., 2011). By contrast, plant intracellular immunereceptors are typically nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR or NLR) proteins, which respond to translocated effectorsfrom a diversity of pathogens (Eitas & Dangl, 2010; Bonardi et al.,2012). These receptors engage in microbial perce ption either bydirectly binding pathogen molecules or ind irectly by sensingpathogen-induced perturbations (Win et al., 2012). However,signaling events downstream of pathogen recognition remainpoorly understood.In addition to their role in microbial recognition, some NLRproteins contribute to signal transduction and/or amplification(Gabriels et al., 2007; Bonardi et al., 2011; Cesari et al., 2014). Anemerging model is that NLR proteins often function in pairs, with‘helper’ proteins required for the activity of ‘sensors’ that mediatepathogen recognition (Bonardi et al., 2011, 2012). Amongpreviously reported NLR helpers, NRC1 (NB-LRR proteinrequired for hypersensitive-response (HR)-associated cell death 1)stands out for having been reported as a signaling hub required forthe cell death mediated by both cell surface immune receptors suchas Cf-4, Cf-9, Ve1 and LeEix2, as well as intracellular immunereceptors, namely Pto, Rx and Mi-1.2 (Gabriels et al., 2006,2007; Sueldo, 2014; Sueldo et al., 2015). However, these studiesdid not take into account the Nicotiana benthamiana genomesequence, and it remains questionable whether NRC1 is indeedrequired for the reported phenotypes.Functional analyses of NRC1 were performed using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) (Gabriels et al., 2007), a method thatis popular for genetic analyses in several plant systems, particularlythe model solanaceous plant N. benthamiana (Burch-Smith et al.,2004). However, interpretation of VIGS can be problematic as theexperiment can result in off-target silencing (Senthil-Kumar & Mysore, 2011). In addition, heterologous gene fragments from other species (e.g. tomato) have been frequently used to silence homologs in N. benthamiana, particularly in studies that predate the sequencing of the N. benthamiana genome (Burton et al., 2000; Liu et al., 2002b; Lee et al., 2003; Gabriels et al., 2006, 2007; SenthilKumaret al., 2007; Oh et al., 2010). In the NRC1 study, a fragment of a tomato gene corresponding to the LRR domain was used for silencing in N. benthamiana (Gabriels et al., 2007). Given that a draft genome sequence of N. benthamiana has been generated (Bombarely et al., 2012) and silencing prediction tools have become available (Fernandez-Pozo et al., 2015), we can now design better VIGS experiments and revisit previously published studies. Two questions arise about the NRC1 study. First, is there a NRC1 ortholog in N. benthamiana? Second, are the reported phenotypes caused by silencing of NRC1 in N. benthamiana? In this study, we investigated NRC1-like genes in solanaceous plants using a combination of genome annotation, phylogenetics, gene silencing and genetic complementation experiments. We discovered three paralogs of NRC1, which we termed NRC2a, NRC2b and NRC3, are required for hypersensitive cell death and resistance mediated by Pto, but are not essential for the cell death triggered by Rx and Mi-1.2. NRC2a/b and NRC3 weakly contribute to the hypersensitive cell death triggered by Cf-4. Our results highlight the importance of applying genetic complementation assays to validate gene function in RNA silencing experiments.

Functional Characterization of a Gene Family Encoding Polygalacturonases in Phytophthora parasitica

Phytophthora parasitica is an oomycete plant pathogen that causes severe disease in a wide variety of plant species. In our previous study, we discovered a multigene family encoding endopolygalacturonases (endoPG) in Phytophthora parasitica. Here, we screened the genomic library of Phytophthora parasitica for the genes encoding endoPG named pppg2 through pppg10, and analyzed their functions. Results obtained by real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction demonstrated that some of these genes are highly induced during plant infection, which suggests their important roles in the pathogenesis of Phytophthora parasitica. Analysis by in-gel activity assay of recombinant proteins obtained from Pichia pastoris indicated that each of these genes encodes a functional endoPG. Investigation of the function of pppg genes in planta by a Potato virus X agroinfection system in tobacco revealed that each pppg caused specific effects, varying from no symptoms to dwarfism, necrosis, leaf curl, silvery leaf, and cracks in leaf stalks. Appearance of these effects depends on the expression of a pppg protein with a normal active site in the apoplast. These results indicated that each pppg plays a distinct role in the decomposition of plant cell wall.

Traffic of a Viral Movement Protein Complex to the Highly Curved Tubules of the Cortical Endoplasmic Reticulum

Intracellular trafficking of the nonstructural movement proteins of plant viruses plays a crucial role in sequestering and targeting viral macromolecules in and between cells. Many of the movement proteins traffic in unconventional, yet mechanistically unknown, pathways to localize to the cell periphery. Here we study trafficking strategies associated with two integral membrane movement proteins TGBp2 and TGBp3 of Potexvirus in yeast. We demonstrate that this simple eukaryote recapitulates the targeting of TGBp2 to the peripheral bodies at the cell cortex by TGBp3. We found that these viral movement proteins traffic as an ∼1:1 stoichiometric protein complex that further polymerizes to form punctate structures. Many punctate structures depart from the perinuclear endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and move along the tubular ER to the cortical ER, supporting that it involves a lateral sorting event via the ER network. Furthermore, the peripheral bodies are associated with cortical ER tubules that are marked by the ER shaping protein reticulon in both yeast and plants. Thus, our data support a model in which the peripheral bodies partition into and/or stabilize at highly curved membrane environments.

NLR network mediates immunity to diverse plant pathogens

Significance Plant and animal nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat-containing (NLR) proteins often function in pairs to mediate innate immunity to pathogens. However, the degree to which NLR proteins form signaling networks beyond genetically linked pairs is poorly understood. In this study, we discovered that a large NLR immune signaling network with a complex genetic architecture confers immunity to oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and insects. The network emerged over 100 Mya from a linked NLR pair that diversified into up to one-half of the NLRs of asterid plants. We propose that this NLR network increases robustness of immune signaling to counteract rapidly evolving plant pathogens. Both plants and animals rely on nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat-containing (NLR) proteins to respond to invading pathogens and activate immune responses. An emerging concept of NLR function is that “sensor” NLR proteins are paired with “helper” NLRs to mediate immune signaling. However, our fundamental knowledge of sensor/helper NLRs in plants remains limited. In this study, we discovered a complex NLR immune network in which helper NLRs in the NRC (NLR required for cell death) family are functionally redundant but display distinct specificities toward different sensor NLRs that confer immunity to oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and insects. The helper NLR NRC4 is required for the function of several sensor NLRs, including Rpi-blb2, Mi-1.2, and R1, whereas NRC2 and NRC3 are required for the function of the sensor NLR Prf. Interestingly, NRC2, NRC3, and NRC4 redundantly contribute to the immunity mediated by other sensor NLRs, including Rx, Bs2, R8, and Sw5. NRC family and NRC-dependent NLRs are phylogenetically related and cluster into a well-supported superclade. Using extensive phylogenetic analysis, we discovered that the NRC superclade probably emerged over 100 Mya from an NLR pair that diversified to constitute up to one-half of the NLRs of asterids. These findings reveal a complex genetic network of NLRs and point to a link between evolutionary history and the mechanism of immune signaling. We propose that this NLR network increases the robustness of immune signaling to counteract rapidly evolving plant pathogens.

Nine things to know about elicitins

888 I. 888 II. 889 III. 889 IV. 889 V. 891 VI. 891 VII. 891 VIII. 892 IX. 892 X. 893 XI. 893 893 References 893 SUMMARY: Elicitins are structurally conserved extracellular proteins in Phytophthora and Pythium oomycete pathogen species. They were first described in the late 1980s as abundant proteins in Phytophthora culture filtrates that have the capacity to elicit hypersensitive (HR) cell death and disease resistance in tobacco. Later, they became well-established as having features of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and to elicit defences in a variety of plant species. Research on elicitins culminated in the recent cloning of the elicitin response (ELR) cell surface receptor-like protein, from the wild potato Solanum microdontum, which mediates response to a broad range of elicitins. In this review, we provide an overview on elicitins and the plant responses they elicit. We summarize the state of the art by describing what we consider to be the nine most important features of elicitin biology.

Tomato SOBIR1/EVR Homologs Are Involved in Elicitin Perception and Plant Defense Against the Oomycete Pathogen Phytophthora parasitica.

During host-pathogen interactions, pattern recognition receptors form complexes with proteins, such as receptor-like kinases, to elicit pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), an evolutionarily conserved plant defense program. However, little is known about the components of the receptor complex, as are the molecular events leading to PTI induced by the oomycete Phytophthora pathogen. Here, we demonstrate that tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) SlSOBIR1 and SlSOBIR1-like genes are involved in defense responses to Phytophthora parasitica. Silencing of SlSOBIR1 and SlSOBIR1-like enhanced susceptibility to P. parasitica in tomato. Callose deposition, reactive oxygen species production, and PTI marker gene expression were compromised in SlSOBIR1- and SlSOBIR1-like-silenced plants. Interestingly, P. parasitica infection and elicitin (ParA1) treatment induced the relocalization of SlSOBIR1 from the plasma membrane to endosomal compartments and silencing of NbSOBIR1 compromised ParA1-mediated cell death on Nicotiana benthamiana. Moreover, the SlSOBIR1 kinase domain is indispensable for ParA1 to trigger SlSOBIR1 internalization and plant cell death. Taken together, these results support the idea of participation of solanaceous SOBIR1/EVR homologs in the perception of elicitins and indicate their important roles in plant basal defense against oomycete pathogens.

Lessons in Effector and NLR Biology of Plant-Microbe Systems

A diversity of plant-associated organisms secrete effectors-proteins and metabolites that modulate plant physiology to favor host infection and colonization. However, effectors can also activate plant immune receptors, notably nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat region (NLR)-containing proteins, enabling plants to fight off invading organisms. This interplay between effectors, their host targets, and the matching immune receptors is shaped by intricate molecular mechanisms and exceptionally dynamic coevolution. In this article, we focus on three effectors, AVR-Pik, AVR-Pia, and AVR-Pii, from the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae (syn. Pyricularia oryzae), and their corresponding rice NLR immune receptors, Pik, Pia, and Pii, to highlight general concepts of plant-microbe interactions. We draw 12 lessons in effector and NLR biology that have emerged from studying these three little effectors and are broadly applicable to other plant-microbe systems.