Chris Englert

The Strength Model of Self-Control in Sport and Exercise Psychology

The strength model of self-control assumes that all acts of self-control (e.g., emotion regulation, persistence) are empowered by a single global metaphorical strength that has limited capacity. This strength can become temporarily depleted after a primary self-control act, which, in turn, can impair performance in subsequent acts of self-control. Recently, the assumptions of the strength model of self-control also have been adopted and tested in the field of sport and exercise psychology. The present review paper aims to give an overview of recent developments in self-control research based on the strength model of self-control. Furthermore, recent research on interventions on how to improve and revitalize self-control strength will be presented. Finally, the strength model of self-control has been criticized lately, as well as expanded in scope, so the present paper will also discuss alternative explanations of why previous acts of self-control can lead to impaired performance in sport and exercise.

Higher self-control capacity predicts lower anxiety-impaired cognition during math examinations

We assumed that self-control capacity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem would enable students to keep attentional control during tests. Therefore, we hypothesized that the three personality traits would be negatively related to anxiety-impaired cognition during math examinations. Secondary school students (N = 158) completed measures of self-control capacity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem at the beginning of the school year. Five months later, anxiety-impaired cognition during math examinations was assessed. Higher self-control capacity, but neither self-efficacy nor self-esteem, predicted lower anxiety-impaired cognition 5 months later, over and above baseline anxiety-impaired cognition. Moreover, self-control capacity was indirectly related to math grades via anxiety-impaired cognition. The findings suggest that improving self-control capacity may enable students to deal with anxiety-related problems during school tests.

Ego depletion negatively affects knowledge retrieval in secondary school students

Abstract In the present study, we tested the assumption that performance in a knowledge retrieval test would be lower in secondary school students with temporarily depleted self-control strength (n = 53) compared to secondary school students with temporarily available self-control strength (n = 56). After manipulating self-control strength, students were instructed to memorise the names and the functions of the human eye and to recall as many names and functions as possible following a one-min distraction task. The results supported our assumptions, as students with depleted self-control strength performed significantly worse in the knowledge retrieval task compared to students whose self-control strength had not been temporarily depleted. The results suggest that depleted self-control strength may negatively affect academic performance and hinder a successful academic career. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

The influence of ego depletion on sprint start performance in athletes without track and field experience

We tested the assumption that ego depletion would affect the sprint start in a sample of N = 38 athletes without track and field experience in an experiment by applying a mixed between- (depletion vs. non-depletion) within- (T1: before manipulation of ego depletion vs. T2: after manipulation of ego depletion) subjects design. We assumed that ego depletion would increase the possibility for a false start, as regulating the impulse to initiate the sprinting movement too soon before the starting signal requires self-control. In line with our assumption, we found a significant interaction as there was only a significant increase in the number of false starts from T1 to T2 for the depletion group while this was not the case for the non-depletion group. We conclude that ego depletion has a detrimental influence on the sprint start in athletes without track and field experience.

Neuroenhancement and the strength model of self-control

Neuroenhancement (NE), the use of substances as a means to enhance performance, has garnered considerable scientific attention of late. While ethical and epidemiological publications on the topic accumulate, there is a lack of theory-driven psychological research that aims at understanding psychological drivers of NE. In this perspective article we argue that self-control strength offers a promising theory-based approach to further understand and investigate NE behavior. Using the strength model of self-control, we derive two theory-driven perspectives on NE-self-control research. First, we propose that individual differences in state/trait self-control strength differentially affect NE behavior based on one’s individual experience of NE use. Building upon this, we outline promising research questions that (will) further elucidate our understanding of NE based on the strength model’s propositions. Second, we discuss evidence indicating that popular NE substances (like Methylphenidate) may counteract imminent losses of self-control strength. We outline how further research on NE’s effects on the ego-depletion effect may further broaden our understanding of the strength model of self-control.

Hi ref, are you in control? Self-control, ego-depletion, and performance in soccer referees

Objectives: Soccer referees are challenged by physiological, professional, and mental demands which require them to exercise self‐control for optimal performance. We applied the strength model of self‐control (e.g., Baumeister & Vohs, 2016; Baumeister et al., 1998) to examine the relationship between self‐control strength and performance in real matches. Design and methods: Sixteen soccer referees (M age = 30.06 yrs, SD = 7.38) completed a trait self‐control scale. Then, over 2–4 matches they completed measures of daily hassles prior to the match and state self‐control prior to and after the match. Personal, situational and performance indices were also collected. Data were analyzed using several statistical procedures, including hierarchical linear modeling. Results: The referees exhibited higher levels of trait self‐control compared with professional soccer players and the general population. Their state self‐control scores were also high. A noticeable decrease (10% or more) in state self‐control strength (i.e., ego depletion) was evident in almost half of the matches. Experience of daily hassles and travel time to the match were related to lower pre‐match self‐control. Ego depletion was associated with self‐reported match difficulty and was negatively related to self‐rated match performance. Conclusions: The findings are in line with previous studies and the strength model of self‐control, highlighting the importance of self‐control strength in soccer refereeing. Practitioners and Referee Unions should support referees in planning match day routines to maintain self‐control strength. HighlightsThe referees exhibited high levels of trait self‐control.Ego‐depletion was evident in 49% of the matches.Daily hassles were related to lower pre‐match self‐control.Ego depletion was negatively related to self‐rated performance.

Self-reports from behind the scenes : Questionable research practices and rates of replication in ego depletion research

The strength model of self-control is one of the most influential and well-established models of self-regulation in social psychology. However, recent attempts to replicate the ego depletion effect have sometimes failed. The goal of this study is to investigate self-reported replication rates and the frequency of a set of questionable research practices (QRP) in ego depletion research. A literature search resulted in 1721 researchers who had previously published on ego depletion. They were invited to participate in an anonymous online survey. The respondents (n = 277), on average, had published over three papers on ego depletion, and had completed more than two additional, unpublished studies. Respondents indicated that in more than 40% of their studies, results were similar in magnitude to those reported in the existing literature, and more than 60% reported conducting a priori power analyses. 39.2% of respondents were aware of other researchers who engaged in the surveyed QRP’s, while 37.7% affirmed to have employed said QRP’s. These results underline the importance of reducing QRP’s to reliably test the validity of the ego depletion effect.

Self-control strength and mindfulness in physical exercise performance: Does a short mindfulness induction compensate for the detrimental ego depletion effect?

To meet specific goals, athletes frequently have to deal with several demands that may deplete their limited self-control resources, which may in turn negatively affect their subsequent performance in a wide variety of sports-related tasks (e.g., coordinative, psychological, and physical tasks). Mindfulness meditation may be beneficial for mechanisms involved during self-control exertion, because it supports efficient emotion regulation, attention regulation, and executive functioning. In our study, we investigated the effects of a short mindfulness exercise on physical performance in a state with temporarily depleted self-control strength (ego depletion). We applied a mixed between- (ego depletion: yes vs. no) and within- (two times of measurement, 7 days apart; mindfulness: yes vs. no; order counterbalanced) subjects design to test our hypothesis in a sample of 34 sport students. Ego depletion was manipulated via a well-established transcription task. For the manipulation of mindfulness, participants performed a 4-min mindfulness exercise via audio in the mindfulness condition and listened to an audiobook in the control condition. As a dependent variable, participants performed a previously validated strenuous physical exercise (plank exercise) for as long as possible, and we measured the relative difference between the baseline measurement and the second trial. We found no interaction effect, meaning that a short mindfulness exercise was not able to compensate for the detrimental ego depletion effect. In future studies, potential mechanisms should be assessed to reveal the ego depletion effect on physical exercise performance. Lay summary: In our study, we investigated the effects of a short mindfulness meditation exercise on physical performance (isometric plank exercise) in a state with temporarily depleted self-control strength (ego depletion). This short mindfulness exercise (breathing meditation) was not able to compensate for the detrimental ego depletion effect on physical exercise performance.

Too Exhausted to Perform at the Highest Level? On the Importance of Self-control Strength in Educational Settings

In order to perform at the highest level in educational settings (e.g., students in testing situations), individuals often have to control their impulses or desires (e.g., to study for an upcoming test or to prepare a course instead of spending time with the peer group). Previous research suggests that the ability to exert self-control is an important predictor of performance and behavior in educational contexts. According to the strength model, all self-control acts are based on one global energy pool whose capacity is assumed to be limited. After having performed a first act of self-control, this resource can become temporarily depleted which negatively affects subsequent self-control. In such a state of ego depletion, individuals tend to display impaired concentration and academic performance, fail to meet academic deadlines, or even disengage from their duties. In this mini-review, we report recent studies on ego depletion which have focused on children as well as adults in educational settings, derive practical implications for how to improve self-control strength in the realm of education and instruction, and discuss limitations regarding the assumptions of the strength model of self-control.