Chris Jacobson

Toward More Reflexive Use of Adaptive Management

Adaptive management is commonly identified as a way to address situations where ecological and social uncertainty exists. Two discourses are common: a focus on experimentation, and a focus on collaboration. The roles of experimental and collaborative adaptive management in contemporary practice are reviewed to identify tools for bridging the discourses. Examples include broadening the scope of contributions during the buy-in and goal-setting stages, using conceptual models and decision support tools to include stakeholders in model development, experimentation using indicators of concern to stakeholders, an experimental focus that reflects the level of statistical confidence required by management, and the engagement of stakeholders in data interpretation so that those affected by management outcomes can learn and adapt accordingly. In this context, a framework of questions that managers can use to reflect on both ecological and social uncertainties as they relate to individual management contexts is proposed.

Interrogating resilience: toward a typology to improve its operationalization

In the context of accelerated global change, the concept of resilience, with its roots in ecological theory and complex adaptive systems, has emerged as the favored framework for understanding and responding to the dynamics of change. Its transfer from ecological to social contexts, however, has led to the concept being interpreted in multiple ways across numerous disciplines causing significant challenges for its practical application. The aim of this paper is to improve conceptual clarity within resilience thinking so that resilience can be interpreted and articulated in ways that enhance its utility and explanatory power, not only theoretically but also operationally. We argue that the current confusion and ambiguity within resilience thinking is problematic for operationalizing the concept within policy making. To achieve our aim, we interrogate resilience interpretations used within a number of academic and practice domains in the forefront of contending with the disruptive and sometimes catastrophic effects of global change (primarily due to climate change) on ecological and human-nature systems. We demonstrate evolution and convergence among disciplines in the interpretations and theoretical underpinnings of resilience and in engagement with cross-scale considerations. From our analysis, we identify core conceptual elements to be considered in policy responses if resilience is to fulfill its potential in improving decision making for change. We offer an original classification of resilience definitions in current use and a typology of resilience interpretations. We conclude that resilience thinking must be open to alternative traditions and interpretations if it is to become a theoretically and operationally powerful paradigm.

Bridging Disciplines, Knowledge Systems and Cultures in Pest Management

The success of research in integrated environmental and natural resource management relies on the participation and involvement of different disciplines and stakeholders. This can be difficult to achieve in practice because many initiatives fail to address the underlying social processes required for successful engagement and social learning. We used an action research approach to support a research-based group with a range of disciplinary and stakeholder expertise to critically reflect on their engagement practice and identify lessons around how to collaborate more effectively. This approach is provided here as a guide that can be used to support reflective research practice for engagement in other integration-based initiatives. This paper is set in the context of an integrated wildlife management research case study in New Zealand. We illustrate how multi-, inter- and trans-disciplinary approaches can provide a framework for considering the different conversations that need to occur in an integrated research program. We then outline rubrics that list the criteria required in inter- and trans-disciplinary collaborations, along with examples of effective engagement processes that directly support integration through such efforts. Finally, we discuss the implications of these experiences for other researchers and managers seeking to improve engagement and collaboration in integrated science, management and policy initiatives. Our experiences reaffirm the need for those involved in integrative initiatives to attend to the processes of engagement in both formal and informal settings, to provide opportunities for critical reflective practice, and to look for measures of success that acknowledge the importance of effective social process.

The status of protected area management evaluation in Australia and implications for its future

Evaluation of protected area management in Australia has been driven by public sector reporting requirements and concern to improve management performance. This review of the status of management evaluation in large protected area management agencies reveals considerable variability in effort applied to evaluation, with emphasis being given to context and planning for management and outcomes of management as it affects valued resources. Agencies have largely adopted best practice principles in making assessments, but are not comprehensive in assessing all parts of the management cycle. The current emphasis may serve reporting requirements, but does not provide information and links that can assist in identifying the factors that affect achievement (or otherwise) of desired management outcomes. This constrains capacity to adopt an adaptive management approach to park management based on management effectiveness evaluations.

Institutionalising Adaptive Management: Creating a Culture of Learning in New South Wales Parks and Wildlife Service

‘Learn by doing’ is the mantra of adaptive management. Organisations that undertake conservation management are often challenged by high levels of uncertainty and a multiplicity of competing priorities leading to more doing than learning. Adaptive management provides a sound approach for these organisations to effectively manage uncertainty and ambiguity. However, institutional characteristics can impede the development of a learning culture and thus the uptake of adaptive management. Following on from a major review of the organisations performance, the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS), responsible for managing over 6,5000,000 ha and over 750 protected areas, embarked on an ambitious program to introduce a performance management program based on adaptive management principles and to institutionalise it so that it became an indelible part of the way NPWS undertakes conservation. Through the combination of an adaptive management framework, a comprehensive performance evaluation program and set of common denominators defining the services provided in the organisation, NPWS has evolved its approach to ensure maximum penetration and uptake of the adaptive management ethos, by actively influencing key institutional facets such as policy, planning regimes, programs, projects and systems to link and align them, and ultimately to help close the adaptive management loop. While adaptive management is becoming normalised in NPWS, future efforts will be geared towards making the institutionalisation of adaptive management more robust and permanent.

Improving technical information use: what can be learnt from a manager's perspective?

Conservation practice reportedly suffers from low use of technical information. Understanding of factors that affect the influence of technical information on management decision-making is limited. We sought to identify leverage points for improved technical information dissemination in the New South Wales Parks and Wildlife Service, Australia, given the significant recent investments in monitoring and evaluation that had been made. We did so by exploring the inter-relationships between factors affecting the influence of different information types on management decisions. Results indicate that managers have a high inclination toward adaptive behavior, given they operate in an information poor environment. The most influential types of information were those that enabled interaction between information provider and recipient (e.g., staff experience and expertise). An analysis of the concordance in individuals’ responses for different information types showed that neither accessibility nor organizational expectation of use was aligned with influence on decision-making. Alignment of responses also varied by work area. Raising expectations of information use or increasing access to particular types of information is therefore unlikely to result in an increase in influence on management decision-making. Rather than focussing on matching accessibility and expected use of particular information types, our results indicate that technical information uptake is best supported through existing peer networks tailored to specific work areas.

Learning About the Social Elements of Adaptive Management in the South Island Tussock Grasslands of New Zealand

Adaptive management initiatives are frequently used in multi-stakeholder situations. The more immediate barriers to success in these cases are proving to be organizational and social. We use a case study set in the South Island tussock grasslands of New Zealand to reflect on some of the social elements required to support ongoing collaborative monitoring and adaptive management. We begin by siting the case study within its wider policy context to show how this influences the choice and application of scientific inquiry. The next section concentrates particularly on the processes by which information and knowledge are shared across the different stakeholder groups involved. Finally, we expand on some specific lessons that emerge as important for sharing information and knowledge in adaptive management, including tools to support dialogue and improved tools for evaluation.

Maximizing conservation evaluation utilization

Evaluation utilization in conservation management emphasizes the use of ‘appropriate’ information from the perspective of an expert provider. An alternative is to emphasize the information needs of recipients. Doing so ensures evaluation information is relevant to expected users and uses. The authors worked with an Australian conservation management agency to address barriers associated with engagement and ensuring relevance to the recipient’s sphere of decision-making. Workshop feedback demonstrated that the process increased the perceived value of the evaluation information. Managers’ reflections on the workshops emphasized factors relating to the decision-making context and the importance of being able to interact with the information in a constructive and non-threatening environment. Identified uses for evaluation information expanded as a result of the workshops to include newfound applications in strategy development and planning, park-specific responses and resource allocation.

Collaborative Learning as Part of Adaptive Management of Forests Affected by Deer

Adaptive management requires the merger of management with science to provide robust knowledge about the effect of management actions. It can also be applied as a model of collaborative learning to support effective resource management. Using the example of adaptive management of native forests affected by introduced deer in New Zealand, we set out to identify some of the tensions that become apparent when adaptive management is applied in this way. We describe the process of adaptive management as it was applied in this case study. Drawing from project documentation and participant reflections on the learning process, we highlight three key lessons: (1) the need to create ‘space’ – i.e. a permissive environment that allows for an evolving process rather than a formalised and legalistic one; (2) that adaptive management cannot be expected to progress in a standardised way but instead, role clarity will emerge over time and this will contribute to an emerging vision of contribution that participants see for their project; and (3) the collaborative learning component of adaptive management poses a new challenge for science as rather than providing solutions to management issues, scientists contribute technical expertise and methods as part of the management

Mainstreaming indigenous perspectives: 25 years of New Zealand's resource management act

It is 25 years since the New Zealand government passed the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA), a revolutionary initiative in legislative design that attracted interest in Australia and elsewhere. The RMA set the framework for an integrated approach to planning for sustainable resource management, replacing 69 other pieces of legislation and 19 regulations, providing links between national, regional, district and city planning, and was heralded as a ‘new planning paradigm’ (Memon & Gleeson 1995). It was also a landmark in ‘enshrining’ Indigenous interests in planning and environmental management. The RMA followed the issuing of powers in 1985 to theWaitangi Tribunal to investigate Government breaches against Māori of the Treaty of Waitangi from 1840 onwards, and the 1987 court judgement that recognised the ‘Principles of the Treaty’. The latter includes the notion of the Treaty as a partnership, the responsibility of the crown to actively protect Māori interests, and the right of the crown to govern. During the 1980s, the Tribunal heard several claims related to the pollution of waterways and its impact on coastal fisheries. The more significant of these was the Manukau Claim 1985, which laid the basis for a new relationship between Māori, all tiers of government and the wider community in resource management policy, planning and decision-making. The Manukau Claim was arguably the catalyst for mainstreaming Māori perspectives within the RMA itself, acknowledging that under the Treaty, Māori have a legitimate, authoritative role to play in resource management in New Zealand. Australia has continued to watch with interest; many of the principles could be enshrined in complementary and over-arching state and national legislation, without the need to reframe numerous acts. Among its principles and features, the RMA: