Christa Winter

Athletic Identity and Student Involvement of Female Athletes at NCAA Division III Women's and Coeducational Colleges

Over the last 40 years, coeducation has widely replaced single-sex education. The number of women’s colleges in the United States decreased from 268 in 1960 to 70 in 2002 (Women’s College Coalition, 2002). Smith (1990) determined that institutions were not convinced that women benefited from attending a single-sex school. The closing of women’s colleges was supported by the assumption that coeducation provides equitable education for men and women (Tidball, Smith, Tidball, & Wolf-Wendell, 1999). Researchers have demonstrated the opposite effects; not only do women’s colleges provide a more effective academic climate, but coeducation is potentially detrimental to the success of female students (Smith, Wolf, & Morrison, 1995). Student involvement in the academic and extracurricular domains has been cited repeatedly as a key factor differentiating the women’s and coeducational environments (Astin, 1977; Kim, 2001; Smith, 1990; Smith et al., 1995). Taking into consideration precollege traits and background demographics, Smith et al. found that attending a women’s college was positively associated with student involvement. Women’s colleges were found to offer and encourage opportunities for involvement to a greater extent than coeducational colleges. Attending a women’s college was also positively correlated with students’ perceptions of their institution as student-centered, which itself was a positive predictor of academic and extracurricular involvement (Smith et al.). Women’s colleges offer students a chance to interact with female role models in multiple academic fields (Tidball, 1976, 1980, 1986). Tidball et al. (1999) argued that students at women’s colleges are not only exposed to a culture that supports women pursuing any field they choose, but they also have professors who confirm that women are capable of doing so. When students perceive that their school is supportive of their education, they are more likely to increase their academic involvement by spending more time studying, conducting research, and interacting regularly with professors (Smith, 1990; Smith et al., 1995). Astin (1977) and Smith et al. have found that the academic involvement of the students at women’s colleges is significantly greater than that of the women on coeducational campuses. Similar results have been found when comparing the extracurricular involvement of women on these campuses (Astin, 1977; Kim, 2001; Smith et al., 1995). Astin found that students at women’s colleges are more likely to engage in artistic interests and political liberalism, attain positions of leadership,

Ankle Stabilizers Affect Agility but Not Vertical Jump or Dynamic Balance Performance

Ankle stabilizers can reduce ankle sprain incidence and severity by limiting range of motion. Still whether using them affects performance remains unclear. The authors compared effects of 3 ankle stabilizers, tape, lace-up (Swede-O Ankle Lok), and semirigid (Air-Cast Air-Stirrup) braces, and a nonsupport control on vertical jump (Sargent Jump Test), agility (Right-Boomerang Run test), and dynamic balance (Modified Bass Test) in 10 volunteers (4 males, 6 females; 25.6 ± 2.8 years, 167.8 ± 13.7 cm, 61.4 ± 10.7 kg) using repeated-measures ANOVAs. Participants had similar vertical jump (P = .27; control = 41.40 ± 11.89 cm, tape = 37.90 ± 7.92 cm, Swede-O = 41.40 ± 11.89 cm, Air-Cast = 39.29 ± 10.85 cm) and dynamic balance (P = .08; control = 92.50 ± 2.46, tape = 91.55 ± 3.53, Swede-O = 97.00 ± 5.32, Air-Cast = 89.40 ± 6.08) but differing agility scores (P = .03; control = 13.55 ± 1.35 seconds, tape = 14.03 ± 1.5 seconds, Swede-O = 14.10 ± 1.36 seconds, Air-Cast = 14.14 ± 1.41 seconds). Post hoc tests revealed a significant difference (P = .03) between control and Air-Cast but not between Swede-O (P = .06) or tape (P = .07). Effect size (d) analyses indicated that compared with control, all stabilizers trended to increase agility run times (tape, d = 0.33; Swede-O, d = 0.40; Air-Cast, d = 0.43). Since participants primarily required sagittal plane motion when jumping vertically and had relatively slow directional changes in the dynamic balance test, wearing ankle stabilizers did not hamper jump or balance. However, ankle stabilizers hindered participants’ ability to perform quick directional changes required in the agility test, with the most rigid stabilizer (Air-Cast) affecting agility the most. Clinicians should be aware that ankle stabilizers may affect some performance measures (agility) but not others (jumping, balance) and continue examinations in larger cohorts. Level of Evidence: Therapeutic, Level II

Comparison of muscle strength imbalance in powerlifters and jumpers.

Abstract Luk, H-Y, Winter, C, O’Neill, E, and Thompson, BA. Comparison of muscle strength imbalance in powerlifters and jumpers. J Strength Cond Res 28(1): 23–27, 2014—The purpose of the study was to examine the bilateral and unilateral force production difference in powerlifters (bilateral) and field jumpers (unilateral) to determine the existence of leg dominance. Nineteen powerlifters (PL; n = 11) and field jumpers (J; n = 8) were included in the study. Five different no arm swing countermovement jumps were randomized for testing: (a) double-leg jump; (b) dominant leg–specified double-leg jump; (c) nondominant leg–specified double-leg jump; (d) dominant leg–specified single-leg jump; and (e) nondominant leg–specified single-leg jump. The force, velocity, and power were measured via a forceplate. The Limb Symmetry Index (LSI% = (1 − ND limb/D limb) × 100%) was calculated for force imbalance between the dominant (N) and nondominant (ND) limb between PL and J. Based on the analysis, PL (mean = 2.75 ± 2.45%) had a lower LSI (p < 0.05) than J (mean = 6.81 ± 5.16%). The single-leg jumps show a (p < 0.05) significantly higher force and power and a significantly lower velocity than double-leg jump for both D and ND leg than double-leg jump. Finally, the ratio between bilateral and unilateral exercise for PL and J is 2.36:1.36 and 2.38:1, respectively. In summary, sport-specific demands between PL and J may contribute to the occurrence of the imbalance force production between limbs. This phenomenon is important for the strength coach to acknowledge, to perform an appropriate strength balance test during the off-season, and to implement a training program to reduce the force disparity between limbs. Neglecting the development of force imbalance between limbs may predispose healthy players to injury.

The Effects of Mental Imagery with Video-Modeling on Self-Efficacy and Maximal Front Squat Ability

This study was designed to assess the effectiveness of mental imagery supplemented with video-modeling on self-efficacy and front squat strength (three repetition maximum; 3RM). Subjects (13 male, 7 female) who had at least 6 months of front squat experience were assigned to either an experimental (n = 10) or a control (n = 10) group. Subjects′ 3RM and self-efficacy for the 3RM were measured at baseline. Following this, subjects in the experimental group followed a structured imagery protocol, incorporating video recordings of both their own 3RM performance and a model lifter with excellent technique, twice a day for three days. Subjects in the control group spent the same amount of time viewing a placebo video. Following three days with no physical training, measurements of front squat 3RM and self-efficacy for the 3RM were repeated. Subjects in the experimental group increased in self-efficacy following the intervention, and showed greater 3RM improvement than those in the control group. Self-efficacy was found to significantly mediate the relationship between imagery and front squat 3RM. These findings point to the importance of mental skills training for the enhancement of self-efficacy and front squat performance.