Christian Gröger

Biomimetic silica formation: analysis of the phosphate-induced self-assembly of polyamines.

The highly siliceous cell walls of diatoms are probably the most outstanding examples of nanostructured materials in nature. Previous in vitro experiments have shown that the biomolecules found in the cell walls of diatoms, namely polyamines and silaffins, are capable of catalysing the formation of silica nanospheres from silicic/oligosilicic acid solutions. In a previous publication, silica precipitation was found to be strictly correlated with a phosphate-induced microscopic phase separation of the polyamines. The present contribution further characterises the phase separation behaviour of polyamines in aqueous solutions. In particular, a pronounced pH-dependence of the average particle diameter is found. It is, furthermore, shown that the ability of phosphate ions to form polyamine aggregates in aqueous solutions cannot be a purely electrostatic effect. Instead, a defined hydrogen-bonded network stabilised by properly balanced electrostatic interactions should be considered. Finally, solid-state 31P NMR studies on phase-separated polyamines, synthetic silica precipitates, and diatom cell walls from the species Coscinodicus granii support the assumption of a phosphate-induced phase separation process taking place during cell wall formation.

A Spherical Molecule with a Carbon‐Free Ih‐C80 Topological Framework

The complete encapsulation of ortho-carborane by a fullerene-like building-block system consisting of pentaphosphaferrocene and Cu(I)Cl leads to the formation of the spherical supermolecule C(2)B(10)H(12) section sign[{Cp*Fe(eta(5)-P(5))}(12)(CuCl)(20)]. This product of template-controlled aggregation represents the first example of a carbon-free C(80) analogue possessing icosahedral symmetry.

Biomolecular self-assembly and its relevance in silica biomineralization.

Biomineralization, which means the formation of inorganic materials by biological processes, currently finds increasing research interest. It involves the synthesis of calcium-based minerals such as bones and teeth in vertebrates, and of shells. Silica biomineralization occurs, for example, in diatoms and silica sponges. Usually, biominerals are made up of amorphous compounds or small microcrystalline domains embedded into an amorphous matrix. Nevertheless, they exhibit very regular shapes and, as in the case of diatoms, intricate nanopatterns of amazing beauty. It is, therefore, commonly assumed that biominerals are formed under the structure-directing influence of templates. However, single molecules are by far too small to direct the formation of the observed shapes and patterns. Instead, supramolecular aggregates are shown to be involved in the formation of templating superstructures relevant in biomineralization. Specific biomolecules were identified in both diatoms and silica sponges, which elegantly combine two indispensable functions: on the one hand, the molecules are capable of inducing silica precipitation from precursor compounds. On the other hand, these molecules are capable of self-assembling into larger, structure-directing template aggregates. Such molecules are the silaffins in the case of diatoms and the silicateins in sponges. Long-chain polyamines of similar composition have meanwhile been discovered in both organisms. The present review is especially devoted to the discussion of the self-assembly behavior of these molecules. Physico-chemical studies on a model compound, poly(allylamine), are discussed in detail in order to elucidate the nature of the interactions responsible for self-assembly of long-chain polyamines and the parameters controlling this process. Numerous biomimetic silica synthesis experiments are discussed and evaluated with respect to the observations made on the aforementioned “natural” biomolecules.

Analytical studies of silica biomineralization: towards an understanding of silica processing by diatoms

Diatoms have continued to attract research interest over a long time. One important reason for this research interest is the amazingly beautiful microstructured and nanostructured patterning of the silica-based diatom cell walls. These materials become increasingly important from the materials science point of view. However, many aspects of diatom cell wall formation and patterning are still not fully understood. The present minireview article summarizes our recent knowledge especially with respect to two major topics related to diatom cell wall formation and patterning: (1) uptake and metabolism of silicon by living diatom cells and (2) understanding of the genetic control of cell wall formation. Analytical techniques as well as recent results concerning these two topics are highlighted in this review.

Size-Determining Dependencies in Supramolecular Organometallic Host–Guest Chemistry

Treatment of the pentaphosphaferrocene [Cp*Fe(η(5)-P(5))] with Cu(I) halides in the presence of different templates leads to novel fullerene-like spherical molecules that serve as hosts for the templates. If ferrocene is used as the template the 80-vertex ball [Cp(2)Fe]@[{Cp*Fe(η(5)-P(5))}(12){CuCl}(20)] (4), with an overall icosahedral C(80) topological symmetry, is obtained. This result shows the ability of ferrocene to compete successfully with the internal template of the reaction system [Cp*Fe(η(5)-P(5))], although the 90-vertex ball [{Cp*Fe(η(5):η(1):η(1):η(1):η(1):η(1)-P(5))}(12)(CuCl)(10)(Cu(2)Cl(3))(5){Cu(CH(3)CN)(2)}(5)] (2 a) containing pentaphosphaferrocene as a guest is also formed as a byproduct. With use of the triple-decker sandwich complex [(CpCr)(2)(μ,η(5)-As(5))] as a template the reaction between [Cp*Fe(η(5)-P(5))] and CuBr leads to the 90-vertex ball [(CpCr)(2)(μ,η(5)-As(5))]@[{Cp*Fe(η(5)-P(5))}(12){CuBr}(10){Cu(2)Br(3)}(5){Cu(CH(3) CN)(2)}(5)] (6), in which the complete molecule acts as a template. However, if the corresponding reaction is instead carried out with CuCl, cleavage of the triple-decker complex is found and the 80-vertex ball [CpCr(η(5)-As(5))]@[{Cp*Fe(η(5)-P(5))}(12){CuCl}(20)] (5) is obtained. This accommodates as its guest [CpCr(η(5)-As(5))], which has only 16 valence electrons in a triplet ground state and is not known as a free molecule. The triple-decker sandwich complex [(CpCr)(2)(μ,η(5)-As(5))] requires 53.1 kcal mol(-1) to undergo cleavage (as calculated by DFT methods) and therefore this reaction is clearly endothermic. All new products have been characterized by single-crystal X-ray crystallography. A favoured orientation of the guest molecules inside the host cages has been identified, which shows π⋅⋅⋅π stacking of the five-membered rings (Cp and cyclo-As(5)) of the guests and the cyclo-P(5) rings of the nanoballs of the hosts.

Complexes of Monocationic Group 13 Elements with Pentaphospha- and Pentaarsaferrocene

Reactions of the sandwich complexes [Cp*Fe(η(5)-E5)] (Cp*=η(5)-C5Me5; E=P (1), As (2)) with the monovalent Group 13 metals Tl(+), In(+), and Ga(+) containing the weakly coordinating anion [TEF] ([TEF]=[Al{OC(CF3)3}4](-)) are described. Here, the one-dimensional coordination polymers [M(μ,η(5):η(1 -E5 FeCp*)3]n [TEF]n (E=P, M=Tl (3 a), In (3 b), Ga (3 c); E=As, M=Tl (4 a), In (4 b)) are obtained as sole products in good yields. All products were analyzed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, revealing a similar assembly of the products with η(5)-bound E5 ligands and very weak σ-interactions between one P or As atom of the ring to the neighbored Group 13 metal cation. By exchanging the [TEF] anion of 4 a for the larger [FAl] anion ([FAl]=[FAl{OC6F10(C6F5)}3](-)), the coordination compound [Tl{(η(5)-As5)FeCp*}3][FAl] (5) without any σ-interactions of the As5-ring is obtained. All products are readily soluble in CH2 Cl2 and exhibit a dynamic coordination behavior in solution, which is supported by NMR spectroscopy and ESI-MS spectrometry as well as by osmometric molecular-weight determination. For a better understanding of the proceeding equilibrium DFT calculations of the cationic complexes were performed for the gas phase and in solution. Furthermore, the (31)P{(1)H} magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectra of 3 a-c are presented and the first crystal structure of the starting material 2 was determined.

One-Dimensional Polymers Based on Silver(I) Cations and Organometallic cyclo-P3 Ligand Complexes

The synthesis and characterization of the first supramolecular aggregates incorporating the organometallic cyclo-P3 ligand complexes [CpRMo(CO)2(eta3-P3)] (CpR=Cp (C5H5; 1a), Cp* (C5(CH3)5; 1b)) as linking units is described. The reaction of the Cp derivative 1a with AgX (X=CF3SO3, Al{OC(CF3)3}4) yields the one-dimensional (1D) coordination polymers [Ag{CpMo(CO)2(mu,eta3:eta1:eta1-P3)}2]n[Al{OC(CF3)3}4]n (2) and [Ag{CpMo(CO)2(mu,eta3:eta1:eta1-P3)}3]n[X]n (X=CF3SO3 (3a), Al{OC(CF3)3}4 (3b)). The solid-state structures of these polymers were revealed by X-ray crystallography and shown to comprise polycationic chains well-separated from the weakly coordinating anions. If AgCF3SO3 is used, polymer 3a is obtained regardless of reactant stoichiometry whereas in the case of Ag[Al{OC(CF3)3}4], reactant stoichiometry plays a decisive role in determining the structure and composition of the resulting product. Moreover, polymers 3a, b are the first examples of homoleptic silver complexes in which Ag(I) centers are found octahedrally coordinated to six phosphorus atoms. The Cp* derivative 1b reacts with Ag[Al{OC(CF3)3}4] to yield the 1D polymer [Ag{Cp*Mo(CO)2(mu,eta3:eta2:eta1-P3)}2]n[Al{OC(CF3)3}4]n (4), the crystal structure of which differs from that of polymer 2 in the coordination mode of the cyclo-P3 ligands: in 2, the Ag+ cations are bridged by the cyclo-P3 ligands in a eta1:eta1 (edge bridging) fashion whereas in 4, they are bridged exclusively in a eta2:eta1 mode (face bridging). Thus, one third of the phosphorus atoms in 2 are not coordinated to silver while in 4, all phosphorus atoms are engaged in coordination with silver. Comprehensive spectroscopic and analytical measurements revealed that the polymers 2, 3a, b, and 4 depolymerize extensively upon dissolution and display dynamic behavior in solution, as evidenced in particular by variable temperature 31P NMR spectroscopy. Solid-state 31P magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR measurements, performed on the polymers 2, 3b, and 4, demonstrated that the polymers 2 and 3b also display dynamic behavior in the solid state at room temperature. The X-ray crystallographic characterisation of 1b is also reported.

Linac Twins in Radiotherapy

In a radiotherapy department having more than one linear accelerator, it is rather common to match the dose output of all machines. In particular, the recently developed flattening filter free mode requires new investigations regarding the feasibility of matching and the consequences for quality assurance and workload. This refers also to the beam model of the radiotherapy treatment planning system. Our results show that matching is possible not only for flat beams but also for flattening filter free mode. Therefore, the machines can substitute each other in the case of breakdown or service without new treatment planning even in the case of complex intensity-modulated radiotherapy or volumetric-modulated arc therapy. The quality assurance is reduced to only one data set for both the linear accelerators and the radiotherapy treatment planning system.