Christian Schemer

More than meets the eye

A growing research literature suggests that visual brand placements need not be recalled in order to have an impact on brand attitudes. In an experimental study working with an authentic television broadcast, the authors investigated the influence of frequency of placement exposure, viewers’ involvement and viewers’ persuasion knowledge on the attitudes towards the brand and brand recall. Results clearly indicate a mere exposure effect. A frequently presented brand placement can have a positive effect on brand evaluations although viewers do not recall the brand. However, this effect can only be found when there is a high involvement in the programme and low persuasion knowledge. In contrast, when persuasion knowledge is high and involvement is low, frequently presented placements lead to a deterioration of brand attitudes.

A Spiral of Silence for Some: Attitude Certainty and the Expression of Political Minority Opinions:

Spiral of silence theory does not assume a simple relationship between opinion climate and opinion expression. In fact, the notion of hardcore individuals (who express their opinions regardless of the climate) embraces the idea that there are some people for whom this relationship does not hold true. However, this idea has not been put to a direct empirical test. In this article, the authors propose that attitude certainty is a key variable in identifying the hardcore. Data from three surveys demonstrate that the climate of opinion only determines opinion expression when individuals hold their attitudes with low or moderate attitude certainty. For individuals with high attitude certainty, no such effect can be found. Thus, there is a spiral of silence only for some but not for all members of the public.

Value Resonance and Value Framing Effects on Voting Intentions in Direct-Democratic Campaigns

This study offers insights into how news media frames interact with existing value orientations in shaping voter preferences. It is assumed that a framing effect should be more pronounced when frames in the news resonate with people’s existing value predispositions. These assumptions were tested in a real-world setting of a political campaign dealing with the issue of naturalization of immigrants. Based on a data set in which the data of a two-wave panel survey were matched with content analytic data, the present research demonstrated frame-resonance effects for news reporting about the pro campaign. That is, framing the issue in terms of the notion that people should have the final say in naturalization procedures shaped voting preferences only for voters whose basic values of social order, tradition, and security (high authoritarians) were touched. In contrast, a main effect of the opponents’ framing in the news on voting preferences was found. Thus, the majority followed the framing of the opponents who put emphasis on a fair and pragmatic solution of the naturalization issue.

The Emotional Effects of News Frames on Information Processing and Opinion Formation

Current approaches explain the effects of news frames on judgments in terms of cognitive mechanisms, such as accessibility and applicability effects. We investigated the emotional effects of two news frames—an “anger” frame and a “sadness” frame—on information processing and opinion formation. We found that the two frames produced different levels of anger and sadness. Furthermore, the anger frame increased the accessibility of information about punishment and the preference for punitive measures in comparison with the sadness frame and the control group. In contrast, the sadness frame increased the accessibility of information about help for victims and the preference for remedial measures. More importantly, these effects were mediated by the anger and sadness that were elicited by the news frames.

I See What You Don't See

Individual differences in field dependence-independence are an integral factor for the perception of product placements. This is because field-independent individuals are better able to separate a stimulus from its embedding context; thus, they can more easily recognize a placement in a complex audiovisual field. In two experiments working with authentic audiovisual stimuli, we varied the appearance of placements and measured the field dependence of our participants. The results of Study 1 demonstrate that field-independent individuals show a higher placement recall than field-dependent individuals. Besides replicating the findings of Study 1, Study 2 shows that field-dependent individuals like the embedded brand more than field-independent individuals. The results speak to the importance of individual difference variables for product placement research.

Diachronic Framing Effects in Competitive Opinion Environments

Although theoretical models understand framing as a process that evolves over time, most prior studies were designed to measure the immediate effects of news frames. We theorize that framing effects are diachronic in nature; that is, framing effects at some given point in time can be diminished or reversed at a later point in time. It is argued that the longevity of framing effects depends on how certain people are when they form their initial opinions. If the effects of frames lead to opinions that are held with low certainty, future exposure to competing frames can alter opinions in directions opposite to the original frame. In contrast, when people hold rather strong opinions as a result of initial frame exposure, these framing effects are likely to persist over time. Two studies support the claim that the longevity of framing effects is conditional on opinion certainty.

Toward Improving the Validity and Reliability of Media Information Processing Measures in Surveys

Measuring media information processing strategies is of great value to the study of media effects in the field. However, researchers have raised concerns about the reliability and construct validity of previously used scales. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to make a methodological contribution by developing a standardized scale for measuring heuristic and systematic information processing. Based on existing research, we tested our measures of media information processing in three independent surveys. Results demonstrate the psychometric properties of the scale and its construct validity with respect to related constructs.

Reinforcing Spirals of Negative Affects and Selective Attention to Advertising in a Political Campaign

The present study investigates self-reinforcing spirals processes between the negative affect toward asylum seekers and the attention to political advertising in a campaign dealing with the issue of the asylum law restriction. Based on data from a three-wave panel survey, the study found evidence of such reciprocal influences. Specifically, the initial attention to political advertising elicited negative affective reactions, such as fear or anxiety toward asylum seekers in the course of the campaign. At the same time, these affective reactions enhanced people’s attention to subsequent political ads. Not only do the findings indicate the presence of reinforcing spirals processes but also do the data suggest that the spirals process is mainly fueled by cues emanating from the political campaign.

Agenda Building and Setting in a Referendum Campaign: Investigating the Flow of Arguments among Campaigners, the Media, and the Public:

This study tests second-level agenda-building and -setting effects in the course of a referendum campaign. Personal standardized interviews with forty-seven different campaign managers and a content analysis of campaign material are linked to a content analysis of TV and newspaper coverage and a three-wave public opinion survey. The results demonstrate the dynamic flow of arguments in the agenda-building and -setting process: top-down from the campaigners to the news media and the public.

Tiptoe or Tackle? The Role of Product Placement Prominence and Program Involvement for the Mere Exposure Effect

Based on the mere exposure effect (Zajonc 1968), the mere unreinforced presentation of product placements can increase brand liking. In an experiment, we manipulated visual placement prominence and placement frequency for an externally and internally valid stimulus. As results indicate, a mere exposure effect can only be observed for frequently presented subtle placements that are embedded in a program that is watched with moderate or high involvement. No such effects could be observed for prominent placements. The results are discussed in their importance for placement effects research and marketing practice.