Christian Schöneich

S-Glutathiolation by peroxynitrite activates SERCA during arterial relaxation by nitric oxide.

Nitric oxide (NO) physiologically stimulates the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium (Ca2+) ATPase (SERCA) to decrease intracellular Ca2+ concentration and relax cardiac, skeletal and vascular smooth muscle. Here, we show that NO-derived peroxynitrite (ONOO−) directly increases SERCA activity by S-glutathiolation and that this modification of SERCA is blocked by irreversible oxidation of the relevant cysteine thiols during atherosclerosis. Purified SERCA was S-glutathiolated by ONOO− and the increase in Ca2+-uptake activity of SERCA reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles required the presence of glutathione. Mutation of the SERCA-reactive Cys674 to serine abolished these effects. Because superoxide scavengers decreased S-glutathiolation of SERCA and arterial relaxation by NO, ONOO− is implicated as the intracellular mediator. NO-dependent relaxation as well as S-glutathiolation and activation of SERCA were decreased by atherosclerosis and Cys674 was found to be oxidized to sulfonic acid. Thus, irreversible oxidation of key thiol(s) in disease impairs NO-induced relaxation by preventing reversible S-glutathiolation and activation of SERCA by NO/ONOO−.

SOD1 mutations disrupt redox-sensitive Rac regulation of NADPH oxidase in a familial ALS model.

Neurodegeneration in familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is associated with enhanced redox stress caused by dominant mutations in superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1). SOD1 is a cytosolic enzyme that facilitates the conversion of superoxide (O(2)(*-)) to H(2)O(2). Here we demonstrate that SOD1 is not just a catabolic enzyme, but can also directly regulate NADPH oxidase-dependent (Nox-dependent) O(2)(*-) production by binding Rac1 and inhibiting its GTPase activity. Oxidation of Rac1 by H(2)O(2) uncoupled SOD1 binding in a reversible fashion, producing a self-regulating redox sensor for Nox-derived O(2)(*-) production. This process of redox-sensitive uncoupling of SOD1 from Rac1 was defective in SOD1 ALS mutants, leading to enhanced Rac1/Nox activation in transgenic mouse tissues and cell lines expressing ALS SOD1 mutants. Glial cell toxicity associated with expression of SOD1 mutants in culture was significantly attenuated by treatment with the Nox inhibitor apocynin. Treatment of ALS mice with apocynin also significantly increased their average life span. This redox sensor mechanism may explain the gain-of-function seen with certain SOD1 mutations associated with ALS and defines new therapeutic targets.

Protein modification during biological aging: selective tyrosine nitration of the SERCA2a isoform of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase in skeletal muscle.

The accumulation of covalently modified proteins is an important hallmark of biological aging, but relatively few studies have addressed the detailed molecular-chemical changes and processes responsible for the modification of specific protein targets. Recently, Narayanan et al. [Narayanan, Jones, Xu and Yu (1996) Am. J. Physiol. 271, C1032-C1040] reported that the effects of aging on skeletal-muscle function are muscle-specific, with a significant age-dependent change in ATP-supported Ca2+-uptake activity for slow-twitch but not for fast-twitch muscle. Here we have characterized in detail the age-dependent functional and chemical modifications of the rat skeletal-muscle sarcoplasmic-reticulum (SR) Ca2+-ATPase isoforms SERCA1 and SERCA2a from fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle respectively. We find a significant age-dependent loss in the Ca2+-ATPase activity (26% relative to Ca2+-ATPase content) and Ca2+-uptake rate specifically in SR isolated from predominantly slow-twitch, but not from fast-twitch, muscles. Western immunoblotting and amino acid analysis demonstrate that, selectively, the SERCA2a isoform progressively accumulates a significant amount of nitrotyrosine with age (approximately 3.5+/-0. 7 mol/mol of SR Ca2+-ATPase). Both Ca2+-ATPase isoforms suffer an age-dependent loss of reduced cysteine which is, however, functionally insignificant. In vitro, the incubation of fast- and slow-twitch muscle SR with peroxynitrite (ONOO-) (but not NO/O2) results in the selective nitration only of the SERCA2a, suggesting that ONOO- may be the source of the nitrating agent in vivo. A correlation of the SR Ca2+-ATPase activity and covalent protein modifications in vitro and in vivo suggests that tyrosine nitration may affect the Ca2+-ATPase activity. By means of partial and complete proteolytic digestion of purified SERCA2a with trypsin or Staphylococcus aureus V8 protease, followed by Western-blot, amino acid and HPLC-electrospray-MS (ESI-MS) analysis, we localized a large part of the age-dependent tyrosine nitration to the sequence Tyr294-Tyr295 in the M4-M8 transmembrane domain of the SERCA2a, close to sites essential for Ca2+ translocation.

Oxidative degradation of pharmaceuticals: Theory, mechanisms and inhibition

Oxidation is a common pathway for drug degradation in liquid and solid formulations. The present article reviews mechanistic details of autoxidation and chain oxidation processes, as well as the oxidation of selected functional groups commonly affected in drugs.

DIASTEREOSELECTIVE REDUCTION OF PROTEIN-BOUND METHIONINE SULFOXIDE BY METHIONINE SULFOXIDE REDUCTASE

Methionine sulfoxide (MetSO) in calmodulin (CaM) was previously shown to be a substrate for bovine liver peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase (pMSR, EC 1.8.4.6), which can partially recover protein structure and function of oxidized CaM in vitro. Here, we report for the first time that pMSR selectively reduces the D‐sulfoxide diastereomer of CaM‐bound L‐MetSO (L‐Met‐D‐SO). After exhaustive reduction by pMSR, the ratio of L‐Met‐D‐SO to L‐Met‐L‐SO decreased to about 1:25 for hydrogen peroxide‐oxidized CaM, and to about 1:10 for free MetSO. The accumulation of MetSO upon oxidative stress and aging in vivo may be related to incomplete, diastereoselective, repair by pMSR.

Proteomic Analysis of Protein Nitration in Aging Skeletal Muscle and Identification of Nitrotyrosine-containing Sequences in Vivo by Nanoelectrospray Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry*

The nitration of protein tyrosine residues represents an important post-translational modification during development, oxidative stress, and biological aging. To rationalize any physiological changes with such modifications, the actual protein targets of nitration must be identified by proteomic methods. While several studies have used proteomics to screen for 3-nitrotyrosine-containing proteins in vivo, most of these studies have failed to prove nitration unambiguously through the actual localization of 3-nitrotyrosine to specific sequences by mass spectrometry. In this paper we have applied sequential solution isoelectric focusing and SDS-PAGE for the proteomic characterization of specific 3-nitrotyrosine-containing sequences of nitrated target proteins in vivo using nanoelectrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Specifically, we analyzed proteins from the skeletal muscle of 34-month-old Fisher 344/Brown Norway F1 hybrid rats, a well accepted animal model for biological aging. We identified the 3-nitrotyrosine-containing sequences of 11 proteins, including cytosolic creatine kinase, tropomyosin 1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, myosin light chain, aldolase A, pyruvate kinase, glycogen phosphorylase, actinin, γ-actin, ryanodine receptor 3, and neurogenic locus notch homolog. For creatine kinase and neurogenic locus notch homolog, two 3-nitrotyrosine-containing sequences were identified, i.e. at positions 14 and 20 for creatine kinase and at positions 1175 and 1205 for the neurogenic locus notch homolog. The selectivity of the in vivo nitration of creatine kinase at Tyr14 and Tyr20 does not correspond to the product selectivity in vitro, where exclusively Tyr82 was nitrated when creatine kinase was exposed to peroxynitrite. The latter experiments demonstrate that the in vitro exposure of an isolated protein to peroxynitrite may not always be a good model to mimic protein nitration in vivo.

The Oxidative Inactivation of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+-ATPase by Peroxynitrite

The oxidative inactivation of rabbit skeletal muscle Ca(2+)-ATPase in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) vesicles by peroxynitrite (ONOO-) was investigated. The exposure of SR vesicles (10 mg/ml protein) to low peroxynitrite concentrations ( < or = 0.2 mM) resulted in a decrease of Ca(2+)-ATPase activity primarily through oxidation of sulfhydryl groups. Most of this deactivation (ca.70%) could be chemically reversed by subsequent reduction of the enzyme with either dithiothreitol (DTT) or sodium borohydride (NaBH4), indicating that free cysteine groups were oxidized to disulfides. The initial presence of 5 mM glutathione failed to protect the SR Ca(2+)-ATPase activity. However, as long as peroxynitrite concentrations were kept < or = 0.45 mM, the efficacy of DTT to reverse Ca(2+)-ATPase inactivation was enhanced for reaction mixtures which initially contained 5 mM glutathione. At least part of the disulfides were formed intermolecularly since gel electrophoresis revealed protein aggregation which could be reduced under reducing conditions. The application of higher peroxynitrite concentrations ( > or = 0.45 mM) resulted in Ca(2+)-ATPase inactivation which could not be restored by exposure of the modified protein to reducing agents. On the other hand, treatment of modified protein with NaBH4 recovered all SR protein thiols. This result indicates that possibly the oxidation of other amino acids contributes to enzyme inactivation, corroborated by amino acid analysis which revealed some additional targets for peroxynitrite or peroxynitrite-induced processes such as Met, Lys, Phe, Thr, Ser, Leu and Tyr. Tyr oxidation was confirmed by a significant lower sensitivity of oxidized SR proteins to the Lowry assay. However, neither bityrosine nor nitrotyrosine were formed in significant yields, as monitored by fluorescence spectroscopy and immunodetection, respectively. The Ca(2+)-ATPase of SR is involved in cellular Ca(2+)-homeostasis. Thus, peroxynitrite mediated oxidation of the Ca(2+)-ATPase might significantly contribute to the loss of Ca(2+)-homeostasis observed under biological conditions of oxidative stress.

Loss of Conformational Stability in Calmodulin upon Methionine Oxidation

We have used electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), circular dichroism (CD), and fluorescence spectroscopy to investigate the secondary and tertiary structural consequences that result from oxidative modification of methionine residues in wheat germ calmodulin (CaM), and prevent activation of the plasma membrane Ca-ATPase. Using ESI-MS, we have measured rates of modification and molecular mass distributions of oxidatively modified CaM species (CaMox) resulting from exposure to H2O2. From these rates, we find that oxidative modification of methionine to the corresponding methionine sulfoxide does not predispose CaM to further oxidative modification. These results indicate that methionine oxidation results in no large-scale alterations in the tertiary structure of CaMox, because the rates of oxidative modification of individual methionines are directly related to their solvent exposure. Likewise, CD measurements indicate that methionine oxidation results in little change in the apparent alpha-helical content at 28 degrees C, and only a small (0.3 +/- 0.1 kcal mol(-1)) decrease in thermal stability, suggesting the disruption of a limited number of specific noncovalent interactions. Fluorescence lifetime, anisotropy, and quenching measurements of N-(1-pyrenyl)-maleimide (PMal) covalently bound to Cys26 indicate local structural changes around PMal in the amino-terminal domain in response to oxidative modification of methionine residues in the carboxyl-terminal domain. Because the opposing globular domains remain spatially distant in both native and oxidatively modified CaM, the oxidative modification of methionines in the carboxyl-terminal domain are suggested to modify the conformation of the amino-terminal domain through alterations in the structural features involving the interdomain central helix. The structural basis for the linkage between oxidative modification and these global conformational changes is discussed in terms of possible alterations in specific noncovalent interactions that have previously been suggested to stabilize the central helix in CaM.

Protein instability and immunogenicity: roadblocks to clinical application of injectable protein delivery systems for sustained release.

Protein instability and immunogenicity are two main roadblocks to the clinical success of novel protein drug delivery systems. In this commentary, we discuss the need for more extensive analytical characterization in relation to concerns about protein instability in injectable drug delivery systems for sustained release. We then will briefly address immunogenicity concerns and outline current best practices for using state-of-the-art analytical assays to monitor protein stability for both conventional and novel therapeutic protein dosage forms. Next, we provide a summary of the stresses on proteins arising during preparation of drug delivery systems and subsequent in vivo release. We note the challenges and difficulties in achieving the absolute requirement of quantitatively assessing the degradation of protein molecules in a drug delivery system. We describe the potential roles for academic research in further improving protein stability and developing new analytical technologies to detect protein degradation byproducts in novel drug delivery systems. Finally, we provide recommendations for the appropriate approaches to formulation design and assay development to ensure that stable, minimally immunogenic formulations of therapeutic proteins are created. These approaches should help to increase the probability that novel drug delivery systems for sustained protein release will become more readily available as effective therapeutic agents to treat and benefit patients.

Accumulation of nitrotyrosine on the SERCA2a isoform of SR Ca-ATPase of rat skeletal muscle during aging: a peroxynitrite-mediated process?

The SR Ca‐ATPase in skeletal muscle SR vesicles isolated from young adult (5 months) and aged (28 months) rats was analyzed for nitrotyrosine. Only the SERCA2a isoform contained significant amounts with approximately one and four nitrotyrosine residues per young and old Ca‐ATPase, respectively. The in vitro exposure of SR vesicles of young rats to peroxynitrite yielded selective nitration of the SERCA2a Ca‐ATPase even in the presence of excess SERCA1a. No nitration was observed during the exposure of SR vesicles to nitric oxide in the presence of O2. These data suggest the in vivo presence of peroxynitrite in skeletal muscle. The greater nitrotyrosine content of SERCA2a from aged tissue imolies an age‐associated increase in susceptibility to oxidation by this species.