Christine Chuen Meng Goh

Metacognitive Instruction for Second Language Listening Development: Theory, Practice and Research Implications.

There has been a growing interest in and concern for the teaching of listening in the last 40 years. Looking back over the years, we can see how the emphases on teaching listening and the focus of listening instruction have changed. Although instructional practices were initially heavily influenced by models of the written language and a behaviourist approach, the focus has since moved to developing listening as a skill needed for constructing and communicating meaning. More recently, discussions about listening instruction have emphasized the role of strategy training and learner metacognition in facilitating comprehension. In this paper I discuss a metacognitive approach, drawing on understandings from educational research as well as second language listening studies. I explain its theoretical rationale and identify principles for carrying out metacognitive instruction, as well as outline general instructional objectives and learning activities for this purpose. Finally, I suggest possible research directions for examining the role of metacognition in second language listening and the relevance of metacognitive instruction to listening development.

How ESL learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics

This article presents findings from research into listening strategies and tactics of ESL learners from the People’s Republic of China studying on an intensive English language and academic skills programme in a university in Singapore. This research makes a distinction between strategies and tactics, with the term ‘strategy’ referring to a general approach and ‘tactic’ meaning a specific action or step. In this article I identify the cognitive and metacognitive strategies and tactics used by 16 ESL learners, and compare the way high- and low-ability listeners applied them. I specifically examine the frequency and the types of strategies and tactics used. To find evidence of these cognitive processes, retrospective verbal reports were analysed. The study showed that the high-ability listeners used more strategies and tactics than the low- ability ones. They were also able to vary their application of tactics within each strategy. Both groups used more cognitive strategies and tactics than metacognitive ones, but the low-ability listeners were particularly poor at it. In addition to reporting the results from the study, the article also discusses issues related to using verbal reports as data and training learners to use listening strategies.

Strategy Knowledge and Perceived Strategy Use: Singaporean Students’ Awareness of Listening and Speaking Strategies

The past three decades have seen a growing body of research into language learner metacognitive knowledge, strategy use, and the relationship between them. However, the correlation between knowledge about strategies and strategy use in ESL listening and speaking has not been explored. This study investigates 278 Singaporean students’ knowledge and use of 40 listening and speaking strategies, and the relationship between these two variables. Distinctions were made among use-focused and form-focused learning strategies, comprehension strategies and communication strategies. The results showed that the students tended to believe in the usefulness of all four groups of strategies but seemed more often to use use-focused ones. Of the 40 strategies, 32 were perceived as useful by half the students, whereas only 13 were reported as used frequently. The discrepancy indicates that, while the students were generally aware of the usefulness of the strategies, they were not yet conscious and confident strategy users. There seems to be a need to increase their repertoire of strategies. Correlations were found between perceptions of the usefulness and perceived use of the strategies. The paper ends by considering teaching implications and future research.

Exploring the relationship between metacognitive awareness and listening performance with questionnaire data

This study sought to provide a nuanced understanding of the relationship between metacognitive awareness and listening performance by eliciting from 113 English-as-a-second-language (ESL) Chinese learners their metacognitive awareness with regard to knowledge of listening strategies used and perceptions of difficulty and anxiety following a listening lesson. Data were collected through the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) and an official sample IELTS listening test. Responses were examined for how different aspects of metacognitive awareness represented by the MALQ factors related to listening performance and for individual differences in metacognitive awareness across these factors. The results showed a significant positive relationship between learners’ metacognitive awareness scores and listening performance and that their metacognitive awareness accounted for 22% of the variance in listening performance. Analysis of individual factors showed a significant relationship between listening performance and the strategies of directed attention and problem solving as well as an overall moderate-to-low sense of confidence among the participants in the study. It also revealed considerable intrapersonal variation in different aspects of metacognitive awareness. The paper discusses the results as well as the use of the questionnaire as an instrument for eliciting and interpreting learners’ metacognitive awareness about listening.

Second Language Listening Expertise

Listening has become an important component of many language programmes but many teachers are still uncertain about how they help their students develop their listening abilities. One way in which teachers can begin to plan activities for developing listening competence is to consider the characteristics of second language (L2) listening expertise. It should be noted that the term ‘listening expertise’ is seldom if ever used in the L2 listening literature. Research and discussions on L2 listening has focused on characteristics of ‘competent’, ‘skilled’, ‘advanced’, ‘good’, ‘active’, ‘strategic’, ‘high-ability’, ‘proficient’, ‘effective’ or ‘successful’ listeners. As a working definition, therefore, we will consider expert L2 listeners as learners who show good comprehension abilities and who possess specific cognitive attributes that enhance their comprehension processes and overall listening development.

Analysis of Test Takers’ Metacognitive and Cognitive Strategy Use and EFL Reading Test Performance:A Multi-Sample SEM Approach

This study investigates the relationships between test takers’ metacognitive and cognitive strategy use through a questionnaire and their test performance on an English as a Foreign Language reading test. A total of 593 Chinese college test takers responded to a 38-item metacognitive and cognitive strategy questionnaire and a 50-item reading test. The data were randomly split into two samples (N = 296 and N = 297). Based on relevant literature, three models (i.e., unitary, higher order, and correlated) of strategy use and test performance were hypothesized and tested to identify the baseline model. Further, cross-validation analyses were conducted. The results supported the invariance of factor loadings, measurement error variances, structural regression coefficients, and factor variances for the unitary model. It was found that college test takers’ strategy use affected their lexico-grammatical reading ability significantly. Findings from this study provide empirical and validating evidence for Bachman and Palmers (2010) model of strategic competence.

Teacher knowledge about oral English instruction and teacher profiles: an EFL perspective

Teacher knowledge, as an important cognitive basis of teaching, has attracted tremendous attention in educational research in the last few decades. This study examines whether teachers’ self-perceived knowledge about oral English teaching differs with regard to their professional profiles in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context in China. A sample of 527 teachers from 56 universities in 29 cities across the country responded to a self-report questionnaire. Thirty teachers were interviewed. Teachers’ self-perceived knowledge was assessed by two factors: pedagogical content knowledge about oral English teaching (PCK) and knowledge of students’ oral English characteristics (KOS). The reliability and validity of the instrument are tested and presented. Results showed that EFL teachers generally reported having insufficient PCK and KOS. ANOVA and t-tests revealed no significant knowledge difference among teachers with different teaching experiences, training and overseas exposure. However, teachers’ learning experiences, self-perceived speaking ability and familiarity with teaching methodologies were found to influence teacher knowledge in a significant way. The findings highlight the need for the development of teacher knowledge about oral English teaching in the EFL contexts. Suggestions for further research are provided.

Discourse Intonation of English in Malaysia and Singapore: Implications for Wider Communication and Teaching

The teaching of pronunciation has for a long time concentrated on segmental features. Increasingly, however, writers and researchers have called for greater emphasis to be placed on the teaching of suprasegmentals because of their influence on intelligibility. The purpose of this article is to reiterate that call for the teaching of English prosody, particularly intonation, to learners of English. This is done through an examination of discourse intonation features of English spoken in Malaysia and Singapore. Using the discourse intonation model by David Brazil (Brazil, Coulthard & Johns 1980, Brazil 1997) as a theoretical framework, this article describes seven common intonation features and discusses how these features may affect communication with English speakers from other countries. It also examines implications for teaching, with particular reference to national English language programmes. Although this discussion is based on Malaysia and Singapore, it may be of interest to other readers in Southeast Asia, where the acquisition of good English pronunciation has become increasingly important in national curricula.

Understanding Discrepancies in Rater Judgement on National-Level Oral Examination Tasks

The oral examination is an important component of the high-stakes ‘O’ Level examination in Singapore taken by 16-17 year olds whose first language may or may not be English. In spite of this, there has been sparse research into the examination. This paper reports findings of an exploratory study which attempted to determine whether there were any discrepancies in rater judgements and thereafter, explore the nature and scope of the discrepancies identified. Four audio recordings were obtained from a simulated oral examination of four candidates conducted by a trained ‘O’ Level oral examiner. Seven other trained ‘O’ Level oral examiners were asked to rate the recordings individually and provide concurrent verbal reports. Questionnaires were also given to the raters for data triangulation after the verbalization. The data were analysed through Verbal Protocol Analysis and descriptive statistics. Rater discrepancies detected in the scores were qualitatively determined to be due to four differences: emphases on factors assessed, constructs of oral proficiency, rater interpretations and approaches in assessment. These findings provide valuable insights into raters’ perceptions of the construct of speaking and offer implications for rater training and the development of rating scales.

Emerging Environments of English for Academic Purposes and the Implications for Learning Materials

Commercial materials can offer many practical benefits to the EAP teacher. But how useful are EAP materials produced predominantly for western contexts to learners in Southeast Asia? This paper examines some limitations in commercial EAP materials. In particular, I will focus on socio-cultural bias present in these materials. I will do this in the context of three EAP environments, which I have distinguished. Each of these environments will be described and compared. I will end by proposing some possible solutions to help meet the needs of our EAP environments. Although examples will be drawn mainly from Southeast Asia, the discussion will be of interest to anyone involved in EAP in otherAsian countries.