Christine Müller-Graf

Scientific Opinion on a quantitative estimate of the public health impact of setting a new target for the reduction of Salmonella in laying hens

Public health risks of Salmonella infection in laying hens (Gallus gallus) can be associated with exposure through four different pathways: internally contaminated table eggs, externally contaminated table eggs, egg products and meat from spent hens. In relation to eggs, Salmonella Enteritidis is by far the serovar most frequently associated with human illness, and exposure through eggs that are internally contaminated with this serovar has a higher public health significance than exposure to externally contaminated eggs. A mathematical model, using reported field data from two EU Member States (MSs), suggests a linear relationship between the investigated scenarios of flock prevalence for Salmonella Enteritidis and the number of contaminated eggs that would be laid. However, the absolute public health impact of the assessed flock prevalence scenarios is highly uncertain due to lack of data on the number of contaminated eggs produced by infected flocks and on the true number of egg-related human salmonellosis cases. It is suggested that public health benefits, similar to those obtained reaching lower Salmonella flock prevalences, may be achieved by implementing controls based on more sensitive sampling protocols. Diversion of eggs from flocks that are tested positive in the EU Salmonella control programme to the production of egg products subjected to heat treatment may lead to increased health risks as heat treatment of egg products should not be considered an absolute barrier to Salmonella contamination. Fresh meat from spent laying hens might carry a higher prevalence of Salmonella than meat from broiler flocks, in particular if sourced from Salmonella-positive flocks. The quantification of under-ascertainment and underreporting of human salmonellosis cases, improving knowledge on within-flock dynamics of Salmonella and harvesting data on production of Salmonella contaminated eggs under field conditions would contribute to improving the accuracy of future quantitative estimates.

Regulatory toxicology in the twenty-first century: challenges, perspectives and possible solutions

Abstract The advent of new testing systems and “omics”-technologies has left regulatory toxicology facing one of the biggest challenges for decades. That is the question whether and how these methods can be used for regulatory purposes. The new methods undoubtedly enable regulators to address important open questions of toxicology such as species-specific toxicity, mixture toxicity, low-dose effects, endocrine effects or nanotoxicology, while promising faster and more efficient toxicity testing with the use of less animals. Consequently, the respective assays, methods and testing strategies are subject of several research programs worldwide. On the other hand, the practical application of such tests for regulatory purposes is a matter of ongoing debate. This document summarizes key aspects of this debate in the light of the European “regulatory status quo”, while elucidating new perspectives for regulatory toxicity testing.

Trace-Back and Trace-Forward Tools Developed Ad Hoc and Used During the STEC O104:H4 Outbreak 2011 in Germany and Generic Concepts for Future Outbreak Situations

The Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany in 2011 required the development of appropriate tools in real-time for tracing suspicious foods along the supply chain, namely salad ingredients, sprouts, and seeds. Food commodities consumed at locations identified as most probable site of infection (outbreak clusters) were traced back in order to identify connections between different disease clusters via the supply chain of the foods. A newly developed relational database with integrated consistency and plausibility checks was used to collate these data for further analysis. Connections between suppliers, distributors, and producers were visualized in network graphs and geographic projections. Finally, this trace-back and trace-forward analysis led to the identification of sprouts produced by a horticultural farm in Lower Saxony as vehicle for the pathogen, and a specific lot of fenugreek seeds imported from Egypt as the most likely source of contamination. Network graphs have proven to be a powerful tool for summarizing and communicating complex trade relationships to various stake holders. The present article gives a detailed description of the newly developed tracing tools and recommendations for necessary requirements and improvements for future foodborne outbreak investigations.

Toxicokinetics of Seven Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonic and Carboxylic Acids in Pigs Fed a Contaminated Diet

The transfer of a mixture of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) from contaminated feed into the edible tissues of 24 fattening pigs was investigated. Four perfluoroalkyl sulfonic (PFSAs) and three perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) were quantifiable in feed, plasma, edible tissues, and urine. As percentages of unexcreted PFAA, the substances accumulated in plasma (up to 51%), fat, and muscle tissues (collectively, meat 40-49%), liver (under 7%), and kidney (under 2%) for most substances. An exception was perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), with lower affinity for plasma (23%) and higher for liver (35%). A toxicokinetic model is developed to quantify the absorption, distribution, and excretion of PFAAs and to calculate elimination half-lives. Perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), a PFCA, had the shortest half-life at 4.1 days. PFSAs are eliminated more slowly (e.g., half-life of 634 days for PFOS). PFAAs in pigs exhibit longer elimination half-lives than in most organisms reported in the literature, but still shorter than in humans.

Hunting of roe deer and wild boar in Germany: Is non-lead ammunition suitable for hunting?

Background Non-lead hunting ammunition is an alternative to bullets that contain lead. The use of lead ammunition can result in severe contamination of game meat, thus posing a health risk to consumers. With any kind of ammunition for hunting, the terminal effectiveness of bullets is an animal welfare issue. Doubts about the effectiveness of non-lead bullets for a humane kill of game animals in hunting have been discussed. The length of the escape distance after the shot has been used previously as an indicator for bullet performance. Objective The object of this study was to determine how the bullet material (lead or non-lead) influences the observed escape distances. Methods 1,234 records of the shooting of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and 825 records of the shooting of wild boar (Sus scrofa) were evaluated. As the bullet material cannot be regarded as the sole cause of variability of escape distances, interactions of other potential influencing variables like shot placement, shooting distance, were analyzed using conditional regression trees and two-part hurdle models. Results The length of the escape distance is not influenced by the use of lead or non-lead ammunition with either roe deer or wild boar. With roe deer, the length of the escape distance is influenced significantly by the shot placement and the type of hunting. Increasing shooting distances increased the length of the escape distance. With wild boar, shot placement and the age of the animals were found to be a significant influencing factor on the length of the escape distance. Conclusions The length of the escape distance can be used as an indicator for adequate bullet effectiveness for humane killings of game animals in hunting.Non-lead bullets already exist which have an equally reliable killing effect as lead bullets.

Estimation of the sensitivity and specificity of a Leptospira spp. in-house ELISA through Bayesian modelling

The microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is still considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of leptospirosis, although studies have shown that the test is an imperfect gold standard for clinical samples and unsuitable for epidemiological studies. Here, test characteristics of an in-house ELISA were identified for both subclinical and clinical populations by Bayesian latent class models. A conditional dependence model for two diagnostic tests and two populations was adapted to analyse a clinical and a subclinical scenario, respectively. These Bayesian models were used to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of the in-house ELISA and the MAT as well as the prevalences. The Bayesian estimates of the in-house ELISA were: clinical sensitivity=83.0%, clinical specificity=98.5%, subclinical sensitivity=85.7% and subclinical specificity=99.1%. In contrast, the estimates of the MAT were: clinical sensitivity=65.6%, clinical specificity=97.7%, subclinical sensitivity 54.9% and subclinical specificity=97.3%. The results show the suitability of the in-house ELISA for both clinical investigations and epidemiological studies in mildly endemic areas.

Copper and zinc content in wild game shot with lead or non-lead ammunition – implications for consumer health protection

The aim of this study was to examine the contamination of game meat with copper and zinc and establish whether the use of alternative (non-lead) ammunition can lead to higher or unsafe levels of copper and zinc in the meat of roe deer, wild boar and red deer. The research project “Safety of game meat obtained through hunting” (LEMISI) was conducted in Germany with the purpose of examining the entry of lead as well as copper and zinc into the meat of hunted game when using either lead or non-lead ammunition. The outcome of this study shows that the usage of both lead-based ammunition and alternative non-lead ammunition results in the entry of copper and zinc into the edible parts of the game. Using non-lead ammunition does not entail dangerously elevated levels of copper and zinc, so replacing lead ammunition with alternative ammunition does not introduce a further health problem with regard to these metals. The levels of copper and zinc in game meat found in this study are in the range found in previous studies of game. The content of copper and zinc in game meat is also comparable to those regularly detected in meat and its products from livestock (pig, cattle, sheep) for which the mean human consumption rate is much higher. From the viewpoint of consumer health protection, the use of non-lead ammunition does not pose an additional hazard through copper and zinc contamination. A health risk due to the presence of copper and zinc in game meat at typical levels of consumer exposure is unlikely for both types of ammunition.

Disease burden of methylmercury in the German birth cohort 2014

This study aimed to estimate the disease burden of methylmercury for children born in Germany in the year 2014. Humans are mainly exposed to methylmercury when they eat fish or seafood. Prenatal methylmercury exposure is associated with IQ loss. To quantify this disease burden, we used Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the incidence of mild and severe mental retardation in children born to mothers who consume fish based on empirical data. Subsequently, we calculated the disease burden with the disability-adjusted life years (DALY)-method. DALYs combine mortality and morbidity in one measure and quantify the gap between an ideal situation, where the entire population experiences the standard life expectancy without disease and disability, and the actual situation. Thus, one DALY corresponds to the loss of one year of life in good health. The methylmercury-induced burden of disease for the German birth cohort 2014 was an average of 14,186 DALY (95% CI 12,915–15,440 DALY). A large majority of the DALYs was attributed to morbidity as compared to mortality. Of the total disease burden, 98% were attributed to mild mental retardation, which only leads to morbidity. The remaining disease burden was a result of severe mental retardation with equal proportions of premature death and morbidity.

Lead content in wild game shot with lead or non-lead ammunition – Does “state of the art consumer health protection” require non-lead ammunition?

The toxicity of lead has been known for a long time, and no safe uptake level can be derived for humans. Consumers’ intake via food should therefore be kept as low as possible. Game meat can contain elevated levels of lead due to the use of lead ammunition for hunting. A risk assessment conducted in 2010 by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment including various consumption scenarios revealed a possible health risk for extreme consumers of game meat hunted with lead ammunition (i.e. hunters and members of hunters’ households). Babies, infants, children and women of childbearing age were identified as vulnerable group with regards to the developmental neurotoxicity of lead. It was noted, that a sound data base was required in order to refine the assessment. Therefore, the research project “Safety of game meat obtained through hunting” (LEMISI) has been conducted in Germany, with the aims of determining the concentrations of lead (as well as of copper and zinc) brought into the edible parts of game meat (roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa)) due to using either lead or non-lead hunting ammunition, whilst concurrently taking geogenic (i.e. “background”) levels of lead into account. Compared to non-lead ammunition, lead ammunition significantly increased lead concentrations in the game meat. The use of both lead and non-lead ammunition deposited copper and zinc in the edible parts of game meat, and the concentrations were in the range of those detected regularly in meat of farm animals. For the average consumer of game meat in Germany the additional uptake of lead only makes a minor contribution to the average alimentary lead exposure. However, for consumers from hunters’ households the resulting uptake of lead–due to lead ammunition—can be several times higher than the average alimentary lead exposure. Non-lead bullets in combination with suitable game meat hygienic measures are therefore recommended in order to ensure “state of the art consumer health protection”.

Beurteilung der Gehalte von Blei, Cadmium und Quecksilber in Lebern und Nieren von ab zwei Jahre alten Schlachtschweinen und -rindern in Deutschland

ZusammenfassungIn Deutschland lagen bisher nur wenige Daten zur Schwermetallbelastung von Lebern und Nieren von zwei Jahre alten oder älteren Schlachtrindern und -schweinen vor. Mit einer Pilotstudie sollte daher überprüft werden, wie hoch die aktuellen Gehalte der drei Schwermetalle Blei, Cadmium und Quecksilber in Lebern und Nieren älterer Schlachttiere sind, und ob Unterschiede zwischen den drei auszuwertenden Ländern festzustellen sind. Da die Schwermetallanreicherung in Lebern und Nieren mit dem Alter der Tiere ansteigt, wurden gezielt Lebern und Nieren von zwei Jahre alten oder älteren Rindern und Schweinen auf Blei, Cadmium und Quecksilber beprobt. Während für Blei kaum Höchstgehaltsüberschreitungen vorkamen, traten diese bei Cadmium und Quecksilber auf. Regionale Unterschiede traten bei Mittelwertsvergleichen der Schwermetallgehalte aus unterschiedlichen Ländern in vielen Tier-Organ-Schwermetallkombinationen auf. Es wird gezeigt, wie hoch die Exposition für die Bevölkerung bei den maximal gemessenen Schwermetallgehalten in Organen von Rindern und Schweinen bei einem durchschnittlichen Verzehr von Lebern und Nieren ist. Höher kontaminierte Nieren und Lebern tragen zum Teil nur in geringem Maße zur Exposition des Verbrauchers mit Quecksilber und Blei bei. Der Verzehr von Organen mit höheren Cadmiumgehalten kann zu einer Ausschöpfung von tolerierbaren wöchentlichen Aufnahmemengen führen. Aus Sicht des gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutzes sollten deshalb die Gehalte von Schwermetallen besonders bei älteren Tieren weiter überwacht werden.