Christine R. Birnie

Antimicrobial Evaluation of N-Alkyl Betaines and N-Alkyl-N,N-Dimethylamine Oxides with Variations in Chain Length

ABSTRACT Alkyl betaines and alkyl dimethylamine oxides have been shown to have pronounced antimicrobial activity when used individually or in combination. Although several studies have been conducted with these compounds in combinations, only equimolar concentrations of the C12/C12 and C16/C14chain lengths for the betaine and the amine oxide, respectively, have been investigated. This study investigates the antimicrobial activity of a wide range of chain lengths (C8 to C18) for both the betaine and amine oxide and attempts to correlate their micelle-forming capabilities with their biological activity. A broth microdilution method was used to determine the MICs of these compounds singly and in various molar ratio combinations. Activity against bothStaphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was investigated. Antimicrobial activity was found to increase with increasing chain length for both homologous series up to a point, exhibiting a cutoff effect at chain lengths of approximately 16 for betaine and 14 for amine oxide. Additionally, the C18 oleyl derivative of both compounds exhibited activity in the same range as the peak alkyl compounds. Critical micelle concentrations were correlated with MICs, inferring that micellar activity may contribute to the cutoff effect in biological activity.

Assessment and recommendations of compounding education in AACP member institutions.

In August 2009, the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Council of Sections established a Task Force to assess the current status of compounding education at its member institutions and to provide recommendations for future direction. The Task Force conducted a survey in late June 2010 of faculty members enrolled in the AACP Pharmaceutics and Pharmacy Practice sections to gain qualitative information of the current state of compounding education. The survey results were then organized around eight curricular topics for which the Task Force members provided interpretations and recommendations. A final report was sent to the AACP Council of Sections on February 15, 2011. This publication provides the information contained in that final report to the professional community.

Evolution of preprofessional pharmacy curricula.

Objectives. To examine changes in preprofessional pharmacy curricular requirements and trends, and determine rationales for and implications of modifications. Methods. Prerequisite curricular requirements compiled between 2006 and 2011 from all doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) programs approved by the Accreditation Council of Pharmacy Education were reviewed to ascertain trends over the past 5 years. An online survey was conducted of 20 programs that required either 3 years of prerequisite courses or a bachelor’s degree, and a random sample of 20 programs that required 2 years of prerequisites. Standardized telephone interviews were then conducted with representatives of 9 programs. Results. In 2006, 4 programs required 3 years of prerequisite courses and none required a bachelor’s degree; by 2011, these increased to 18 programs and 7 programs, respectively. Of 40 programs surveyed, responses were received from 28 (70%), 9 (32%) of which reported having increased the number of prerequisite courses since 2006. Reasons given for changes included desire to raise the level of academic achievement of students entering the PharmD program, desire to increase incoming student maturity, and desire to add clinical sciences and experiential coursework to the pharmacy curriculum. Some colleges and schools experienced a temporary decrease in applicants. Conclusions. The preprofessional curriculum continues to evolve, with many programs increasing the number of course prerequisites. The implications of increasing prerequisites were variable and included a perceived increase in maturity and quality of applicants and, for some schools, a temporary decrease in the number of applicants.

A Continuous Professional Development Process for First-Year Pharmacy Students

Objectives. To develop, pilot test, and evaluate a continuous professional development (CPD) process for first-year pharmacy (P1) students. Design. Students and faculty members were introduced to the important elements of the CPD process via a live training program. Students completed the year-long 4-step CPD cycle by identifying a learning objective, creating a plan, completing the learning activity, evaluating their learning outcome, documenting each step, and meeting with their faculty advisor for feedback and advice. Assessment. Seventy-five first-year students (100%) successfully completed the CPD process during the 2009-2010 academic year. The students spent an average of 7 hours (range 2 to 20 hours) on the CPD process. The majority of faculty members (83%) completing the survey instrument found the process valuable for the students and would like to see the program continued. Conclusion. Integrating a CPD requirement for students in a college or school of pharmacy is feasible and valuable to students’ developing life-long learning skills. Effective and frequent training of faculty members and students is a key element in the CPD process.

Analysis of Compounded Pharmaceutical Products to Teach the Importance of Quality in an Applied Pharmaceutics Laboratory Course

Objective. To assess the effectiveness of a product-analysis laboratory exercise in teaching students the importance of quality in pharmaceutical compounding. Design. Second-year pharmacy students (N=77) participated in a pharmaceutical compounding laboratory exercise and subsequently analyzed their final product using ultraviolet (UV) spectrometry. Assessment. Reflection, survey instruments, and quiz questions were used to measure how well students understood the importance of quality in their compounded products. Product analysis showed that preparations compounded by students had an error range of 0.6% to 140%, with an average error of 23.7%. Students’ reflections cited common sources of error, including inaccurate weighing, contamination, and product loss during both the compounding procedure and preparation of the sample for analysis. Ninety percent of students agreed that the exercise improved their understanding of the importance of quality in compounded pharmaceutical products. Most students (85.7%) reported that this exercise inspired them to be more diligent in their preparation of compounded products in their future careers. Conclusion. Integrating an analytical assessment during a pharmaceutical compounding laboratory can enhance students’ understanding of quality of compounded pharmaceutical products. It can also provide students a chance to reflect on sources of error to improve their compounding technique in the future.

John F. Marriott, Keith A.Wilson, Christopher A. Langley, and Dawn Belcher. Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing, 2nd ed. London: Pharmaceutical Press; 2010. 304 pp;

Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing, now in its second edition, provides a thorough overview of pharmaceutical compounding, primarily intended for a United Kingdom (UK) based audience. The book is divided into 3 larger sections and 20 chapters, including sections on the history of compounding, pharmaceutical dosage forms, and product formulas. It also includes a series of video demonstrations available online. The authors, who are all academicians and practitioners in a United Kingdom based pharmacy school, begin the text by providing a significant focus on the historical perspective of the discipline. This emphasis and depth is unique to compounding texts and valuable. This historical section provides an overview of the origins of the profession and the development of organizations and pharmacopeias, and describes obsolete dosage forms and equipment. Occupying the first 40 pages of the text, this section provides relevant context and appreciation for the art of compounding within the profession. Although the majority of the history is universally relevant, there is particular focus on the United Kingdom (UK)-based legislation, organizations (Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain), and pharmacopeias (British Pharmacopiea) that may not be relevant to the non-UK reader. The majority of the book does, however, focus on various dosage forms and their preparations, as one might expect. This section begins with appropriate general chapters related to calculations and measurements and ingredients, and then focuses more specifically on individual dosage forms. Those covered in the book include 7 primary categories of commonly compounded nonsterile dosages forms: solutions, suspensions, emulsions, creams, ointments and gels, suppositories, and powders and capsules. The text does not discuss sterile dosage forms. The final section of the text includes additional formulas for various dosage forms. Although useful examples, many of the formulas reference the British Pharmacopeia (BP). Formulas stated in this section use ointment bases such as “Emulsifying Ointment, BP” and “Simple Ointment, BP” for example, which may be unfamiliar to pharmacists and students outside the UK. A useful teaching tool attached to this text is a series of 7 online videos, complimenting the chapters on individual dosage forms. These videos would be particularly useful in instructing a laboratory section as the videos provide demonstrations of stepwise preparations of 7 primary dosage forms. The videos are available on the Pharmaceutical Press Web site, accessed with a password included in the books introductory pages. Overall, the book is well received, since there are few textbooks or reference books available devoted specifically to compounding. The authors should be commended for emphasizing the historical content in tandem with the preparation instruction. Although the book remains a good resource for anyone interested in compounding, the book is likely best suited for pharmacists and students within the United Kingdom, due to the numerous references to country-specific guidance and historical content.

59.99 (paperback). ISBN 978-0-85369-912-5

Objective. To assess students’ pre-pharmacy math experiences, confidence in math ability, and relationship between experiences, confidence, and grades in math-based pharmacy courses. Methods. A cross-sectional survey of first year to third year pharmacy students was conducted. Students reported type of pre-pharmacy math courses taken, when they were taken [high school (HS) vs. college] and year of HS and college graduation. Students rated their confidence in math ability using the previously validated 11-item Fogerty Math Confidence Scale (Cronbach alpha=0.92). Math grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admission Test quantitative (PCAT quant) scores, and grades (calculations and kinetics) were obtained from transcripts and school records. Spearman correlation and multivariate linear regression were used to compare math experiences, confidence, and grades. Results. There were 198 students who reported taking math courses 7.1 years since HS graduation and 2.9 years since their last schooling prior to pharmacy school. Students who took math courses with more time since HS/last schooling had lower calculations and kinetics grades. Students reporting having taken more HS math courses had better calculations grades. Students with higher math GPA, and PCAT quant scores also had higher calculations and kinetics grades. Greater confidence in math ability was associated with higher calculations grades. In multivariate regressions, PCAT quant scores and years since HS independently predicted calculations grades, and PCAT quant scores independently predicted kinetics grades. Conclusion. The number of pre-pharmacy math courses and time elapsed since they were taken are important factors to consider when predicting a pharmacy student’s success in math-based pharmacy school courses.

The Relationship Between Prior Experiences in Mathematics and Pharmacy School Success

The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and patient knowledge of elevated blood pressure amongst a cross‐section of patients in underserved communities in three selected low‐income countries worldwide: El Salvador, India and Kenya.