Christoph Stadel

THE PERCEPTION OF STRESS BY CAMPESINOS: A PROFILE FROM THE ECUADORIAN SIERRA

The objective of this paper is to analyse and assess environmental and socio-economic stress factors as perceived by Andean campesinos (peasant farmers). The study region chosen is a section of the Central Ecuadorian Sierra, along a profile which extends from the upper limit of human settlement at the foot of the Chimborazo (about 4,200 m) to the gate of the Oriente around Puyo (around 900 m). This profile offers a wide variety of environmental conditions and includes a number of distinct socio-economic regions. The study reveals that some constraints of the natural environment and development shortcomings, foremost those related to steep slopes and erosion, are not necessarily perceived by the local population as major stress factors. Other problems that were identified by the farmers, such as the shortage of agricultural labour in some areas, were unexpected by the author. The paper further empha- sizes that certain perceived problems such as insufficient community infrastructures and services, the high cost of agricultural supplies, and inadequate technical assistance are prominent throughout the entire study region. On the other hand, a number of perceived stressors were related to specific natural or cultural environments, for example low temperatures at high elevations, a dry climate and insufficient irrigation in the Cuenca (basin) of Ambato, or accessibility to highways and market centres. It is hoped that this paper can contribute to a better understanding of the genuine problems and needs of the campesinos, as well as to the design of development strategies that are a true response to the stress and aspirations of rural Andean populations.

DEL VALLE AL MONTE: ALTITUDINAL PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN THE PATATE-PELILEO AREA OF ECUADOR1

Since the pioneer studies of Carl Troll considerable work has been done on the geoecology of tropical highlands in Latin America. Less emphasis has been devoted to the study of human activities in different altitudinal belts. In particular, little work has been undertaken on this topic in the Sierra region of Ecuador, located in a transition zone between the permanently humid paramo and the seasonally arid puna. This paper is based on a field investigation of a study area in the Patate-Pelileo region located in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador carried out during the summer of 1981. The chosen site lies in a transition zone between the semi-arid Cuenca of Ambato and the humid eastern slopes of the Cordillera. Five major altitudinal belts of agricultural activity are represented between the valley floor of the Patate River (2,000 m) and the upper slopes of surrounding Cerros (about 3,700 m). Apart from the different types of agricultural resources and their altitudinal range, the hillside belts of agricultural systems exhibit a number of distinct seasonal agricultural calendars, productivity, and land prices.

THE MOBILIZATION OF HUMAN RESOURCES BY NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE BOLIVIAN ANDES1

In the tropical Andes, a long tradition exists in the utilization and mobilization of rural resources. In certain periods, agriculture and settlement patterns were well adapted to the specific local environmental conditions; at other times, constraints of the natural environment, of historical burdens, and of current social, economic, and political problems contributed to widespread conditions of poverty and underdevelopment. This paper examines the development issues and the activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and a number of affiliated agencies in two representative regions of highland Bolivia: the northern Altiplano and the eastern Cordillera region in the Departamento de Cochabamba. Based on documentation of the agencies and on numerous talks and formal interviews with representatives of the NGOs and the campesinos, an attempt was made to identify the major problems and constraints of specific micro-regions, as well as the perceived development priorities, and the strategies of the agencies and local communities to implement the development process. Although the NGOs may use different approaches and methods, it became obvious that the key to successful and sustained development lies in programs and projects that take into account the specific local environmental conditions, the cultural traditions of the indigenous communities, and the felt needs of the local people. Based on these premises, an effective partnership may be established between NGOs and the campesinos which can lead to a mobilization of local human and material resources and to appropriate sustainable forms of rural development.

THE BRENNER FREEWAY1 (AUSTRIA-ITALY): MOUNTAIN HIGHWAY OF CONTROVERSY

Alpine passes have historically provided a transportation and communication link between the core regions of Western and Central Europe and those of Mediterranean Europe. Due to the geographic advantages of its low elevation and the possibility of crossing the Alps on a single pass, the Brenner route has had an eminent transportation function at least since Roman times. Today, the Brenner Pass is crossed by a major railway line, a highway, and a freeway-the first one in the Alps. This paper discusses the alpine section of the Brenner Freeway between the Austrian city of Innsbruck and the Italian city of Brixen/Bressanone with its triple transportation function for local commuter traffic, for tourist traffic to the resorts of the region, and for transalpine freight and passenger traffic. It is the latter which recently has aroused a considerable amount of controversy. This great traffic artery has had major effects on the natural environment, the settlements, the economic and social structures, and the life of the people adjacent to the Freeway. Among the positive impacts of the Freeway are: the traffic diversion from the highway which runs through many villages; the enhanced mobility, accessibility, and ease of transalpine transportation; the attraction of enterprises to the region, and the creation of jobs. The major negative impacts, apart from the visual impairment of alpine valleys and the land consumption of the Freeway, are mostly seen in the production of massive amounts of traffic-generated toxic emissions and of high noise levels which have negatively affected the quality of life of the local population and have been a major deterrent for tourists. The multiple impacts of the Brenner Freeway are portrayed in a conceptual model.