Christopher B. Rodell

Direct 3D Printing of Shear-Thinning Hydrogels into Self-Healing Hydrogels

Supramolecular hydrogels are used in the 3D printing of high-resolution, multi-material structures. The non-covalent bonds allow the extrusion of the inks into support gels to directly write structures continuously in 3D space. This material system supports the patterning of multiple inks, cells, and void spaces.

Rational design of network properties in guest-host assembled and shear-thinning hyaluronic acid hydrogels.

Shear-thinning hydrogels afford direct injection or catheter delivery to tissues without potential premature gel formation and delivery failure or the use of triggers such as chemical initiators or heat. However, many shear-thinning hydrogels require long reassembly times or exhibit rapid erosion. We developed a shear-thinning hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel based on the guest-host interactions of adamantane modified HA (guest macromer, Ad-HA) and β-cyclodextrin modified HA (host macromer, CD-HA). The ability of the guest and host molecules to interact with their counterpart following conjugation to HA was confirmed by (1)H NMR spectroscopy and was similar to that of the native complex. Mixing of Ad-HA and CD-HA resulted in rapid formation of a hydrogel composed of guest-host bonds. The hydrogel physical properties, including mechanics and flow characteristics, were dependent on cross-link density and network structure, which were controlled through macromer concentration, the extent of guest macromer modification, and the molar ratio of guest and host functional groups. The guest-host assembly mechanism permitted both shear-thinning behavior for ease of injection and near-instantaneous reassembly for material retention at the target sight. The hydrogel erosion and release of a model biomolecule were also dependent on design parameters and were sustained for over 60 days. These hydrogels show potential as a minimally invasive injectable hydrogel for biomedical applications.

Progress in material design for biomedical applications

Biomaterials that interface with biological systems are used to deliver drugs safely and efficiently; to prevent, detect, and treat disease; to assist the body as it heals; and to engineer functional tissues outside of the body for organ replacement. The field has evolved beyond selecting materials that were originally designed for other applications with a primary focus on properties that enabled restoration of function and mitigation of acute pathology. Biomaterials are now designed rationally with controlled structure and dynamic functionality to integrate with biological complexity and perform tailored, high-level functions in the body. The transition has been from permissive to promoting biomaterials that are no longer bioinert but bioactive. This perspective surveys recent developments in the field of polymeric and soft biomaterials with a specific emphasis on advances in nano- to macroscale control, static to dynamic functionality, and biocomplex materials.

Supramolecular Guest–Host Interactions for the Preparation of Biomedical Materials

Supramolecular chemistry has emerged as an important technique for the formation of biomaterials, including nano- and microparticles and hydrogels. One specific class of supramolecular chemistry is the direct association of guest-host pairs, which involves host macrocycles such as cyclodextrins and cucurbit[n]urils and a wide range of guest molecules, where association is typically driven by molecule size and hydrophobicity. These systems are of particular interest in the biomedical field due to their dynamic nature, chemical diversity, relative ease of synthesis, and ability to interact with biological or synthetic molecules. In this review, we discuss aspects of polymeric material assembly mediated by guest-host interactions, including the fundamentals of assembly into functional biomedical materials. Additionally, applications of biomaterials that utilize guest-host interactions are discussed with a focus on injectable material formulations, the sequestration and delivery of encapsulated cargo (i.e., drugs, biomolecules), and the investigation of cell-material interactions (i.e., adhesion, differentiation, and delivery). While methodologies for guest-host mediated assembly and biological interaction have rapidly evolved in recent years, they remain far from realizing their full potential in the biomaterials field.

Secondary Photocrosslinking of Injectable Shear-Thinning Dock-and-Lock Hydrogels

Shear-thinning hydrogels are useful in numerous applications, including as injectable carriers that act as scaffolds to support cell and drug therapies. Here, we describe the engineering of a self-assembling Dock-and-Lock (DnL) system that forms injectable shear-thinning hydrogels using molecular recognition interactions that also possess photo-triggerable secondary crosslinks. These DnL hydrogels are fabricated from peptide-modified hyaluronic acid (HA) and polypeptide precursors, can self-heal immediately after shear induced flow, are cytocompatible, and can be stabilized through light-initiated radical polymerization of methacrylate functional groups to tune gel mechanics and erosion kinetics. Secondary crosslinked hydrogels retain self-adhesive properties and exhibit cooperative physical and chemical crosslinks with moduli as high as ∼10 times larger than moduli of gels based on physical crosslinking alone. The extent of reaction and change in properties are dependent on whether the methacrylate is incorporated either at the terminus of the peptide or directly to the HA backbone. Additionally, the gel erosion can be monitored through an incorporated fluorophore and physical-chemical gels remain intact in solution over months, whereas physical gels that are not covalently crosslinked erode completely within days. Mesenchymal stem cells exhibit increased viability when cultured in physical- chemical gels, compared with those cultured in gels based on physical crosslinks alone. The physical properties of these DnL gels may be additionally tuned by adjusting component compositions, which allows DnL gels with a wide range of physical properties to be constructed for use.

Injectable and Cytocompatible Tough Double-Network Hydrogels through Tandem Supramolecular and Covalent Crosslinking.

Double-network theory is extended to include guest-host interactions, enabling injectability and cytcompatibility of tough hydrogels. Noncovalent interactions are used as a sacrificial network to toughen covalently crosslinked hydrogels formed from hyaluronic acid. Shear thinning of supramolecular bonds allows hydrogel injection and rapid self-healing, while gentle reaction conditions permit cell encapsulation with high viability.

Protease-degradable electrospun fibrous hydrogels

Electrospun nanofibers are promising in biomedical applications to replicate features of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). However, nearly all electrospun scaffolds are either non-degradable or degrade hydrolytically, whereas natural ECM degrades proteolytically, often through matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Here, we synthesize reactive macromers that contain protease-cleavable and fluorescent peptides and are able to form both isotropic hydrogels and electrospun fibrous hydrogels through a photoinitiated polymerization. These biomimetic scaffolds are susceptible to protease-mediated cleavage in vitro in a protease dose dependent manner and in vivo in a subcutaneous mouse model using transdermal fluorescent imaging to monitor degradation. Importantly, materials containing an alternate and non-protease-cleavable peptide sequence are stable in both in vitro and in vivo settings. To illustrate the specificity in degradation, scaffolds with mixed fiber populations support selective fiber degradation based on individual fiber degradability. Overall, this represents a novel biomimetic approach to generate protease-sensitive fibrous scaffolds for biomedical applications.

Sustained small molecule delivery from injectable hyaluronic acid hydrogels through host–guest mediated retention

Self-assembled and injectable hydrogels have many beneficial properties for the local delivery of therapeutics; however, challenges still exist in the sustained release of small molecules from these highly hydrated networks. Host-guest chemistry between cyclodextrin and adamantane has been used to create supramolecular hydrogels from modified polymers. Beyond assembly, this chemistry may also provide increased drug retention and sustained release through the formation of inclusion complexes between drugs and cyclodextrin. Here, we engineered a two-component system from adamantane-modified and β-cyclodextrin (CD)-modified hyaluronic acid (HA), a natural component of the extracellular matrix, to produce hydrogels that are both injectable and able to sustain the release of small molecules. The conjugation of cyclodextrin to HA dramatically altered its affinity for hydrophobic small molecules, such as tryptophan. This interaction led to lower molecule diffusivity and the release of small molecules for up to 21 days with release profiles dependent on CD concentration and drug-CD affinity. There was significant attenuation of release from the supramolecular hydrogels (~20% release in 24h) when compared to hydrogels without CD (~90% release in 24h). The loading of small molecules also had no effect on hydrogel mechanics or self-assembly properties. Finally, to illustrate this controlled delivery approach with clinically used small molecule pharmaceuticals, we sustained the release of two widely used drugs (i.e., doxycycline and doxorubicin) from these hydrogels.

Epicardial YAP/TAZ orchestrate an immunosuppressive response following myocardial infarction

Ischemic heart disease resulting from myocardial infarction (MI) is the most prevalent form of heart disease in the United States. Post-MI cardiac remodeling is a multifaceted process that includes activation of fibroblasts and a complex immune response. T-regulatory cells (Tregs), a subset of CD4+ T cells, have been shown to suppress the innate and adaptive immune response and limit deleterious remodeling following myocardial injury. However, the mechanisms by which injured myocardium recruits suppressive immune cells remain largely unknown. Here, we have shown a role for Hippo signaling in the epicardium in suppressing the post-infarct inflammatory response through recruitment of Tregs. Mice deficient in epicardial YAP and TAZ, two core Hippo pathway effectors, developed profound post-MI pericardial inflammation and myocardial fibrosis, resulting in cardiomyopathy and death. Mutant mice exhibited fewer suppressive Tregs in the injured myocardium and decreased expression of the gene encoding IFN-&ggr;, a known Treg inducer. Furthermore, controlled local delivery of IFN-&ggr; following MI rescued Treg infiltration into the injured myocardium of YAP/TAZ mutants and decreased fibrosis. Collectively, these results suggest that epicardial Hippo signaling plays a key role in adaptive immune regulation during the post-MI recovery phase.

Local immunotherapy via delivery of interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor β antagonist for treatment of chronic kidney disease.

Obstructive nephropathy is the leading cause of kidney disease in children. The tissue injury resulting from initial dilation precipitates a deleterious cascade of macrophage infiltration, apoptosis, and fibrosis to produce a resultant dysfunctional tissue. We propose to abate this tissue remodeling process through immunotherapy administered via the local and sustained delivery of interleukin-10 (IL-10; anti-inflammatory) and anti-transforming growth factor β (anti-TGFβ; anti-fibrotic). Shear-thinning, injectable hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels were formed through supramolecular guest-host interactions and used to contain IL-10, anti-TGFβ, or both molecules together. Degradation assays demonstrated that diffusive molecule release was associated with concurrent hydrogel erosion and was sustained for up to 3weeks in vitro. Erosion was likewise monitored in vivo by non-invasive optical imaging, where gel localization to the affected tissue was observed with near complete clearance by day 18. Hydrogels were applied to a murine model of chronic kidney disease, with subcapsular hydrogel injections acting as a delivery depot. Quantitative histological analysis (days 7, 21, and 35) was used to evaluate treatment efficacy. Notably, results demonstrated reduced macrophage infiltration beyond day 7 in treatment groups and reduced apoptosis at day 21, relative to untreated unilateral ureteral obstruction disease model. Fibrosis was reduced at the 35day timepoint in groups treated with IL-10 or anti-TGFβ alone, but not with the combination therapy. Rather, dual delivery of IL-10 and anti-TGFβ resulted in a paradoxical hastening of fibrosis, warranting further investigation. Localized immunotherapy is a novel approach to treat kidney disease and shows promise as a translatable therapy.