Christopher I. Hodgson

Creatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behavior

The effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with intermittent moderate-intensity exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, effort and salivary concentrations of cortisol and melatonin were examined. Subjects were divided into a creatine supplementation group and a placebo group. They took 5 g of creatine monohydrate or a placebo, dependent on their group, four times a day for 7 days immediately prior to the experiment. They undertook tests examining central executive functioning, short-term memory, choice reaction time, balance, mood state and effort at baseline and following 18-, 24- and 36-h sleep deprivation, with moderate intermittent exercise. Saliva samples were taken prior to each set of tests. A group x time analysis of covariance, with baseline performance the covariate, showed that the creatine group performed significantly (p < 0.05) better than the placebo group on the central executive task but only at 36 h. The creatine group demonstrated a significant (p < 0.01) linear improvement in performance of the central executive task throughout the experiment, while the placebo group showed no significant effects. There were no significant differences between the groups for any of the other variables. A significant (p < 0.001) main effect of time was found for the balance test with a linear improvement being registered. Cortisol concentrations on Day 1 were significantly (p < 0.01) higher than on Day 2. Mood significantly (p < 0.001) deteriorated up to 24 h with no change from 24 to 36 h. Effort at baseline was significantly (p < 0.01) lower than in the other conditions. It was concluded that, during sleep deprivation with moderate-intensity exercise, creatine supplementation only affects performance of complex central executive tasks.

Physiological and psychological responses to lead and top rope climbing for intermediate rock climbers

Abstract Rock climbing is a popular adventure sport with an increasing research base. Early studies in the field did not make comparisons of ascents using different styles of climbing. More recently, differences in the physiological responses for an on-sight lead climb and subsequent lead climb have been reported. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of style of climb (lead climb or top rope climb) on the physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing. Nine intermediate climbers volunteered for, and completed, two randomly assigned climbing trials and a maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) test on a separate occasion. The climbers ascended the same 6a (sport grade) climb for both trials. Before climbing, heart rate, perception of anxiety (Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2), and blood lactate concentration were measured. Climb time, heart rate, VO2, lactate concentrations, and task load (National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index) in response to each trial were also recorded. Results indicated significant differences (P<0.05) between the trials for climb time, blood lactate concentration immediately after and 15 min after climbing, and heart rate 1 min after climbing. During lead and top rope climbing, mean VO2 and represented 44% and 42% of treadmill VO2max and mean heart rate represented 81% and 77% of maximum heart rate, respectively. There were no significant differences in feelings of anxiety before either climb, although climbers reported the lead climb to be physically and mentally more demanding, requiring more effort and resulting in greater frustration (P<0.05) than the top rope climb. Our results indicate that the physiological and psychological responses of intermediate climbers are different for a lead climb and top rope climb.

Perceived anxiety and plasma cortisol concentrations following rock climbing with differing safety-rope protocols

Objectives: To examine how different safety rope protocols impact on subjective anxiety and self-confidence levels and plasma cortisol concentrations and the relationship between subjective states and cortisol during rock climbing. Methods: Participants (n = 12) were tested in three climbing conditions that were designed to invoke low, moderate and high physical and mental stress. Plasma cortisol concentrations were collected before and after climbing and participants reported subjective anxiety and self-confidence states for each climb. Results: Repeated measures analysis of variance showed significant differences between conditions for somatic anxiety (F2, 22 = 7.74, p = 0.009), self-confidence (F2, 22 = 9.52, p = 0.001) and change in plasma cortisol concentration (F2, 22 = 3.71, p = 0.041). Preplanned polynomial comparisons showed that these were linear effects; somatic anxiety was higher in the higher stress conditions whilst self-confidence was lower. Plasma cortisol concentration change was also linear. Regression analyses showed cubic relationships between plasma cortisol concentration and cognitive anxiety (R2 = 0.452), self-confidence (R2 = 0.281) and somatic anxiety (R2 = 0.268). Conclusions: There is a relationship between plasma cortisol concentration and subjective anxiety and self-confidence states during rock climbing. Changes in the way the safety rope is organised can impact on anxiety, cortisol concentration and self-confidence during rock climbing.

Development of a performance assessment tool for rock climbers

Abstract Rock climbing is a popular adventure sport for which there is a growing body of scientific knowledge. There is, however, a lack of sport-specific assessment tools to monitor performance. The aim of this study was to examine the potential of the rock-over climbing test (ROCT) as a measure of climbing performance. The ROCT was conducted on a climbaflex board and involved the climber making a rock-over move for which the height gained from lower to upper handhold was measured. Results indicated there was a significant relationship between scaled (to the height of the climber) ROCT scores and climbing ability (r=0.67, P<0.0005). Regression modelling revealed that the ROCT explained 45% of the variance in scores between climbers. The ROCT differentiated between climber ability levels. Mean ROCT scores for novice, intermediate, advanced, and elite climbers were 59.5%, 71%, 82%, and 90% of participant height respectively. Results of analysis of variance revealed that these differences were significant (F 3,42=13.38, P<0.0005). Limits of agreement and intra-class correlation indicated that the ROCT is a reliable performance measure. Our findings suggest that the ROCT is a useful measure of climbing performance.

Does acute exercise affect the performance of whole-body, psychomotor skills in an inverted-U fashion? A meta-analytic investigation

The primary purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytical measures, whether research into the performance of whole-body, psychomotor tasks following moderate and heavy exercise demonstrates an inverted-U effect. A secondary purpose was to compare the effects of acute exercise on tasks requiring static maintenance of posture versus dynamic, ballistic skills. Moderate intensity exercise was determined as being between 40% and 79% maximum power output (ẆMAX) or equivalent, while ≥80% ẆMAX was considered to be heavy. There was a significant difference (Zdiff=4.29, p=0.001, R(2)=0.42) between the mean effect size for moderate intensity exercise (g=0.15) and that for heavy exercise size (g=-0.86). These data suggest a catastrophe effect during heavy exercise. Mean effect size for static tasks (g=-1.24) was significantly different (Zdiff=3.24, p=0.001, R(2)=0.90) to those for dynamic/ballistic tasks (g=-0.30). The result for the static versus dynamic tasks moderating variables point to perception being more of an issue than peripheral fatigue for maintenance of static posture. The difference between this result and those found in meta-analyses examining the effects of acute exercise on cognition shows that, when perception and action are combined, the complexity of the interaction induces different effects to when cognition is detached from motor performance.

Flexibility assessment and the role of flexibility as a determinant of performance in rock climbing

Many climbers believe flexibility to be a key performance component, but this remains unsubstantiated under experimental conditions. The need for sport-specific measures of flexibility has been highlighted. The purpose of our research was to assess the validity and reliability of four novel tests of climbing flexibility. The four tests, completed on a purposebuilt climbaflex board, were the adapted Grant foot raise, climbing-specific foot raise, lateral foot reach and the foot-loading flexibility test. In addition, for comparative purposes, the participants completed two existing measures, the sit-and-reach test and Grant foot raise. With the exception of the climbing-specific foot raise all measures had good reliability (ICC = 0.90 – 0.97). The existing flexibility measures had a poor correlation with climbing ability. The lateral foot reach and the adapted Grant foot raise were correlated with climbing ability (r = 0.30; r = 0.34) and used together represent good field measures of flexibility. The foot-loading flexibility test was had the strongest correlation with climbing ability (r = 0.65) and could differentiate between climbing abilities (F3,42 = 8.38, p < 0.001) in a laboratory setting. Our findings indicate that flexibility is a key performance component for the sport when a climbing-specific test is used.

National governing body awards: a strategy for success

Abstract Outdoor education undergraduates are more likely to gain employment in the industry if they possess a wide profile of National Governing Body (NGB) awards. Such awards demonstrate to potential employers agreed standards of safety, technical competence and teaching ability. The present case study examined the kinds of strategies adopted by students in their quest to gain relevant awards. It showed that successful students place great store in structured goal setting behaviour. They set various levels of goals and are prepared to review goals in light of changing circumstances. They take full advantage of practice with peers to improve technical, organisational and teaching skills, and use placement/work opportunities to further their qualifications. The study suggests the University could do more to assist students by way of adopting a mentoring system, and providing key information and organising relevant courses. An action research project designed to examine further the relationship between some of these features and NGB award/employment success was suggested.