Christopher M. Yip

α-Synuclein Membrane Interactions and Lipid Specificity

With the discovery of missense mutations (A53T and A30P) in α-synuclein (α-Syn) in several families with early onset familial Parkinsons disease, α-Syn aggregation and fibril formation have been thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of α-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinsons disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy. As previous reports have suggested that α-Syn plays a role in lipid transport and synaptic membrane biogenesis, we investigated whether α-Syn binds to a specific lipid ligand using thin layer chromatography overlay and examined the changes in its secondary structure using circular dichroism spectroscopy. α-Syn was found to bind to acidic phospholipid vesicles and this binding was significantly augmented by the presence of phosphatidylethanolamine, a neutral phospholipid. We further examined the interaction of α-Syn with lipids by in situ atomic force microscopy. The association of soluble wild-type α-Syn with planar lipid bilayers resulted in extensive bilayer disruption and the formation of amorphous aggregates and small fibrils. The A53T mutant α-Syn disrupted the lipid bilayers in a similar fashion but at a slower rate. These results suggest that α-Syn membrane interactions are physiologically important and the lipid composition of the cellular membranes may affect these interactions in vivo.

Quantitative and Dynamic Assessment of the Contribution of the ER to Phagosome Formation

Phagosomes were traditionally thought to originate from an invagination and scission of the plasma membrane to form a distinct intracellular vacuole. An alternative model implicating the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as a major component of nascent and maturing phagosomes was recently proposed (Gagnon et al., 2002). To reconcile these seemingly disparate hypotheses, we used a combination of biochemical, fluorescence imaging, and electron microscopy techniques to quantitatively and dynamically assess the contribution of the plasmalemma and of the ER to phagosome formation and maturation. We could not verify even a transient physical continuity between the ER and the plasma membrane, nor were we able to detect a significant contribution of the ER to forming or maturing phagosomes in either macrophages or dendritic cells. Instead, our data indicate that the plasma membrane is the main constituent of nascent and newly formed phagosomes, which are progressively remodeled by fusion with endosomal and eventually lysosomal compartments as phagosomes mature into acidic, degradative organelles.

Elimination of host cell PtdIns(4,5)P 2 by bacterial SigD promotes membrane fission during invasion by Salmonella

Salmonella invades mammalian cells by inducing membrane ruffling and macropinocytosis through actin remodelling. Because phosphoinositides are central to actin assembly, we have studied the dynamics of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) in HeLa cells during invasion by Salmonella typhimurium. Here we show that the outermost parts of the ruffles induced by invasion show a modest enrichment in PtdIns(4,5)P2, but that PtdIns(4,5)P2 is virtually absent from the invaginating regions. Rapid disappearance of PtdIns(4,5)P2 requires the expression of the Salmonella phosphatase SigD (also known as SopB). Deletion of SigD markedly delays fission of the invaginating membranes, indicating that elimination of PtdIns(4,5)P2 may be required for rapid formation of Salmonella-containing vacuoles. Heterologous expression of SigD is sufficient to promote the disappearance of PtdIns(4,5)P2, to reduce the rigidity of the membrane skeleton, and to induce plasmalemmal invagination and fission. Hydrolysis of PtdIns(4,5)P2 may be a common and essential feature of membrane fission during several internalization processes including invasion, phagocytosis and possibly endocytosis.

Amyloid-β Peptide Assembly: A Critical Step in Fibrillogenesis and Membrane Disruption

Identifying the mechanisms responsible for the assembly of proteins into higher-order structures is fundamental to structural biology and understanding specific disease pathways. The amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide is illustrative in this regard as fibrillar deposits of Abeta are characteristic of Alzheimers disease. Because Abeta includes portions of the extracellular and transmembrane domains of the amyloid precursor protein, it is crucial to understand how this peptide interacts with cell membranes and specifically the role of membrane structure and composition on Abeta assembly and cytotoxicity. We describe the results of a combined circular dichroism spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and in situ tapping mode atomic force microscopy (TMAFM) study of the interaction of soluble monomeric Abeta with planar bilayers of total brain lipid extract. In situ extended-duration TMAFM provided evidence of membrane disruption via fibril growth of initially monomeric Abeta1-40 peptide within the total brain lipid bilayers. In contrast, the truncated Abeta1-28 peptide, which lacks the anchoring transmembrane domain found in Abeta1-40, self-associates within the lipid headgroups but does not undergo fibrillogenesis. These observations suggest that the fibrillogenic properties of Abeta peptide are in part a consequence of membrane composition, peptide sequence, and mode of assembly within the membrane.

Aβ42-Peptide Assembly on Lipid Bilayers

One of the major pathological features of Alzheimers disease (AD) is the presence of extracellular amyloid plaques that are composed predominantly of the amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta). Diffuse plaques associated with AD are composed predominantly of Abeta42, whereas senile plaques contain both Abeta40 and Abeta42. Recently, it has been suggested that diffuse plaque formation is initiated as a plasma membrane-bound Abeta species and that Abeta42 is the critical component. In order to investigate this hypothesis, we have examined Abeta42-membrane interactions using in situ atomic force microscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy. Our studies demonstrate the association of Abeta42 with planar bilayers composed of total brain lipids, which results initially in peptide aggregation and then fibre formation. Modulation of the cholesterol content is correlated with the extent of Abeta42-assembly on the bilayer surface. Although Abeta42 was not visualized directly on cholesterol-depleted bilayers, fluorescence anisotropy and fluorimetry demonstrate Abeta42-induced membrane changes. Our results demonstrate that the composition of the lipid bilayer governs the outcome of Abeta interactions.

Solution phase synthesis of carbon quantum dots as sensitizers for nanocrystalline TiO2 solar cells

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have recently emerged as viable alternatives to traditional semiconductor quantum dots because of their facile and low cost synthesis, long term colloidal stability, and low environmental and biological toxicity. The compatible surface chemistry, good solubility in polar solvents and extensive optical absorption throughout the visible and near-infrared wavelength regions render CQDs as potentially useful sensitizers for photovoltaic applications. Presented herein is a new strategy for the solution phase synthesis of water-soluble, colloidally stable CQDs and a preliminary exploration of their utilization as sensitizers in nanocrystalline TiO2 based solar cells. Under AM 1.5 illumination, the Voc and FF values reach 380 mV and 64% respectively, achieving a power conversion efficiency of 0.13%.

Roles of Hydrophobicity and Charge Distribution of Cationic Antimicrobial Peptides in Peptide-Membrane Interactions

Background: Cationic antimicrobial peptides offer an alternative to conventional antibiotics, as they physically disrupt bacterial membranes, causing cell death. Results: Peptides designed with high hydrophobicity display strong self-association that is minimized by distribution of positive charges at both peptide termini. Conclusion: Balancing peptide hydrophobicity and charge distribution promotes efficient antimicrobial activity. Significance: Routes to optimization of peptide sequences are valuable for devising therapeutic strategies. Cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) occur as important innate immunity agents in many organisms, including humans, and offer a viable alternative to conventional antibiotics, as they physically disrupt the bacterial membranes, leading to membrane lysis and eventually cell death. In this work, we studied the biophysical and microbiological characteristics of designed CAPs varying in hydrophobicity levels and charge distributions by a variety of biophysical and biochemical approaches, including in-tandem atomic force microscopy, attenuated total reflection-FTIR, CD spectroscopy, and SDS-PAGE. Peptide structural properties were correlated with their membrane-disruptive abilities and antimicrobial activities. In bacterial lipid model membranes, a time-dependent increase in aggregated β-strand-type structure in CAPs with relatively high hydrophobicity (such as KKKKKKALFALWLAFLA-NH2) was essentially absent in CAPs with lower hydrophobicity (such as KKKKKKAAFAAWAAFAA-NH2). Redistribution of positive charges by placing three Lys residues at both termini while maintaining identical sequences minimized self-aggregation above the dimer level. Peptides containing four Leu residues were destructive to mammalian model membranes, whereas those with corresponding Ala residues were not. This finding was mirrored in hemolysis studies in human erythrocytes, where Ala-only peptides displayed virtually no hemolysis up to 320 μm, but the four-Leu peptides induced 40–80% hemolysis at the same concentration range. All peptides studied displayed strong antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (minimum inhibitory concentrations of 4–32 μm). The overall findings suggest optimum routes to balancing peptide hydrophobicity and charge distribution that allow efficient penetration and disruption of the bacterial membranes without damage to mammalian (host) membranes.

Molecular chaperone Hsp90 stabilizes Pih1/Nop17 to maintain R2TP complex activity that regulates snoRNA accumulation

Hsp90 is a highly conserved molecular chaperone that is involved in modulating a multitude of cellular processes. In this study, we identify a function for the chaperone in RNA processing and maintenance. This functionality of Hsp90 involves two recently identified interactors of the chaperone: Tah1 and Pih1/Nop17. Tah1 is a small protein containing tetratricopeptide repeats, whereas Pih1 is found to be an unstable protein. Tah1 and Pih1 bind to the essential helicases Rvb1 and Rvb2 to form the R2TP complex, which we demonstrate is required for the correct accumulation of box C/D small nucleolar ribonucleoproteins. Together with the Tah1 cofactor, Hsp90 functions to stabilize Pih1. As a consequence, the chaperone is shown to affect box C/D accumulation and maintenance, especially under stress conditions. Hsp90 and R2TP proteins are also involved in the proper accumulation of box H/ACA small nucleolar RNAs.

Direct evidence for membrane pore formation by the apoptotic protein Bax

Direct imaging of the interaction of the apoptotic protein, Bax, with membrane bilayers shows the presence of toroidal-shaped pores using atomic force microscopy. These pores are sufficiently large to allow passage of proteins from the intermitochondrial space. Both the perturbation of the membrane and the amount of protein bound to the bilayer are increased in the presence of calcium. The results from the imaging are consistent with leakage studies from liposomes of the same composition. The work shows that Bax by itself can form pores in membrane bilayers.

Biodegradable Quantum Dot Nanocomposites Enable Live Cell Labeling and Imaging of Cytoplasmic Targets

Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) offer great promise as the new generation of fluorescent probes to image and study biological processes. Despite their superior optical properties, QDs for live cell monitoring and tracking of cytoplasmic processes remain limited due to inefficient delivery methods available, altered state or function of cells during the delivery process and the requirement of surface-functionalized QDs for specific labeling of subcellular structures. Here, we present a noninvasive method to image subcellular structures in live cells using bioconjugated QD nanocomposites. By incorporating antibody-coated QDs within biodegradable polymeric nanospheres, we have designed a bioresponsive delivery system that undergoes endolysosomal to cytosolic translocation via pH-dependent reversal of nanocomposite surface charge polarity. Upon entering the cytosol, the polymer nanospheres undergo hydrolysis thus releasing the QD bioconjugates. This approach facilitates multiplexed labeling of subcellular structures inside live cells without the requirement of cell fixation or membrane permeabilization. As compared to conventional intracellular delivery techniques, this approach allows the high throughput cytoplasmic delivery of QDs with minimal toxicity to the cell. More importantly, this development demonstrates an important rational strategy for the design of a multifunctional nanosystem for biological applications.