Christopher W. Allinson

Cognitive Style and the Theory and Practice of Individual and Collective Learning in Organizations

This paper reviews aspects of two largely disparate literatures from the adjacent fields of individual and organizational learning and identifies some implications for theory and practice. The focus of attention is the extent to which the individual level construct cognitive style can be meaningfully applied to aid the understanding of learning at the level of the organization as well as at the level of the individual. Attention is given to the ways in which consideration of cognitive style can improve the effectiveness of interventions designed to improve individual and organizational performance. Nine categories of intervention are identified.

Intuition and Entrepreneurial Behaviour

Entrepreneurs can be differentiated from non-entrepreneurs on the basis of intention, but intention is not always translated into performance that produces entrepreneurial outcomes. It is proposed that an alternative basis for differentiation is cognitive style (preferred approach to information processing). The present study hypothesizes that those owner managers who are, in practice, successful at identifying and exploiting opportunities for growth and capital accumulation (i.e., successful entrepreneurs) are (1) more intuitive in their cognitive style than the general population of managers; (2) no different in cognitive style from senior managers and executives; and (3) more intuitive than middle and junior managers. A questionnaire containing the Cognitive Style Index (CSI), a measure of the intuitive-analytic dimension, was distributed to the 437 founders of high growth companies listed in the latest edition of the publication Local Heroes (Scottish Enterprise, 1997). The 156 replies (representing a response rate of 35% were compared with those of 546 managers from various organizations who had completed the questionnaire previously. Results showed that all three hypotheses were upheld. Although the study was essentially exploratory, the findings are encouraging. They suggest fertile ground for further research by highlighting the importance of cognitive aspects of entrepreneurial behaviour.

Formal Mentoring Systems: An Examination of the Effects of Mentor/Protege Cognitive Styles on the Mentoring Process

In informal mentoring systems, proteges seek help from other organizational members between whom there is often mutual attraction and rapport resulting in a level of interpersonal comfort between the members of the relationship. Because of the apparent benefits for both employee and organization, many human resource managers now attempt to establish formal mentoring systems in which mentors and proteges are brought together systematically. It is recognized, however, that assigned mentoring relationships are not usually as beneficial as those that develop informally. There appears, therefore, to be a need to match partners in some way. It has been suggested that a better grasp of psychological factors is necessary if this is to be achieved. One personality variable that may be partly responsible for shaping the overall effectiveness of such relationships is cognitive style. The present study, involving 53 mentor–protege dyads, examined the effects of the cognitive styles of mentors and proteges on the process of formal mentoring. Data were collected from both partners in each dyadic relationship, and findings suggest that in dyads whose mentor is more analytic, congruence between the partners’ cognitive styles enhances the quality of their mentoring relationships. Cognitive style was also found to work indirectly through its influence on other variables to enhance mutual liking and psychosocial and career mentoring functions. Gender composition was also found to have a significant impact on the mentoring process. Dyads with female mentors and male proteges were found to be the least favourable combination.

The effects of cognitive style on leader‐member exchange: A study of manager‐subordinate dyads

The similarity-attraction paradigm suggests that congruence between the cognitive styles of managers and their subordinates may result in positive leader-member relationships. A study of 142 manager-subordinate dyads in two large manufacturing organizations fails to support this idea. Findings suggest, however, that intuitive leaders may be less dominating and more nurturing than their analytic colleagues, and that they are more liked and respected by analytic members than analytic leaders are by intuitive members. Results also indicate that the degree of difference between leader and member cognitive styles may influence the nature of the relationship. Practical implications depend on whether cognitive style is stable or malleable.

Senior managers’ perceptions of the competencies they require for effective performance: implications for training and development

This study investigates whether there is a set of universal senior management competencies in the context of one large multi‐site service organisation. Four distinct work environments are identified and different lists of competencies are perceived to be important by managers working at the same grade (unit general manager or equivalent) in each of these environments. These findings are considered within the context of the debate about the utility of competency lists for management development.

Further reflections on the nature of intuition-analysis and the construct validity of the Cognitive Style Index

Theoretical and empirical arguments that support the construct validity of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index are reviewed in the light of Hodgkinson and Sadler-Smiths (2003) assertion that Allinson and Hayes (1996) incorrectly specified the nature of the Cognitive Style Index (CSI) as a measure of intuition-analysis predicated on a unitarist conception of the construct. It is concluded that Hodgkinson and Sadler-Smith fail to offer a robust challenge to either the theoretical or empirical arguments supporting the construct validity of the Cognitive Style Index.

MATCHING LEARNING STYLE AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY: AN APPLICATION OF THE PERSON-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION PARADIGM

There is a widely held view that matching learning style and instructional strategy can improve the effectiveness of education and training. This paper is a review of 17 studies, drawn from a variety of educational contexts, which investigate the interaction effect of learning style and instructional strategy. Ten studies provide support for the proposition that instructional strategy will be differentially effective for students with different learning styles. Three factors which might have contributed to the lack of support associated with the other seven studies are discussed.

Validity of the Learning Styles Questionnaire

The most widely documented measure of learning styles, the Learning Style Inventory, has frequently been criticized for lack of reliability and validity. A possible alternative is the Learning Styles Questionnaire. Although its temporal stability and internal consistency are well established, more evidence of its validity is required. The three studies reported here confirm its dual factor structure and provide further evidence of its construct validity. Its concurrent validity and predictive validity, however, are still open to question. Until these have been confirmed, the questionnaire cannot be regarded as a significant improvement upon the Learning Style Inventory.

Intuition, women managers and gendered stereotypes

Gender‐centred perspectives of women managers and women in general characterise them as being more intuitive than male managers and men in general. Evidence for gender differences in cognitive style was sought by administering the Cognitive Style Index, a measure of intuition analysis, to three UK samples of managers and three UK samples of non‐managers. Results indicate that there is no difference between female and male managers in terms of intuitive orientation, that female non‐managers are more analytical (less intuitive) than male non‐managers and more analytical than female managers. This lack of support for stereotypic characterisation of women managers and women in general as being more intuitive than their male equivalents is discussed within the context of structural and gendered cultural perspectives on behaviour in organisations.

Learning Styles and Training and Development in Work Settings: lessons from educational research

While human resource development (HRD) practioners are interested in learning style, there has been relatively little empirical research in work settings. This paper reviews the research on the interaction effect of learning style and the learning style orientation of the learning environment on learning outcomes, and discusses how the findings from educational research can inform training and development practice. The need for more research in work settings is discussed and the dearth of valid and reliable measures of cognitive (learning) style that can be easily administered to employees is considered as a factor which may have inhibited research The advantages and disadvantages of a number of measures that could be used in work settings are discussed.