Christopher W. Hamilton

New image processing software for analyzing object size-frequency distributions, geometry, orientation, and spatial distribution

Geological Image Analysis Software (GIAS) combines basic tools for calculating object area, abundance, radius, perimeter, eccentricity, orientation, and centroid location, with the first automated method for characterizing the aerial distribution of objects using sample-size-dependent nearest neighbor (NN) statistics. The NN analyses include tests for (1) Poisson, (2) Normalized Poisson, (3) Scavenged k=1, and (4) Scavenged k=2 NN distributions. GIAS is implemented in MATLAB with a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that is available as pre-parsed pseudocode for use with MATLAB, or as a stand-alone application that runs on Windows and Unix systems. GIAS can process raster data (e.g., satellite imagery, photomicrographs, etc.) and tables of object coordinates to characterize the size, geometry, orientation, and spatial organization of a wide range of geological features. This information expedites quantitative measurements of 2D object properties, provides criteria for validating the use of stereology to transform 2D object sections into 3D models, and establishes a standardized NN methodology that can be used to compare the results of different geospatial studies and identify objects using non-morphological parameters.

Fluvial geomorphology on Earth-like planetary surfaces: A review

Morphological evidence for ancient channelized flows (fluvial and fluvial-like landforms) exists on the surfaces of all of the inner planets and on some of the satellites of the Solar System. In some cases, the relevant fluid flows are related to a planetary evolution that involves the global cycling of a volatile component (water for Earth and Mars; methane for Saturns moon Titan). In other cases, as on Mercury, Venus, Earths moon, and Jupiters moon Io, the flows were of highly fluid lava. The discovery, in 1972, of what are now known to be fluvial channels and valleys on Mars sparked a major controversy over the role of water in shaping the surface of that planet. The recognition of the fluvial character of these features has opened unresolved fundamental questions about the geological history of water on Mars, including the presence of an ancient ocean and the operation of a hydrological cycle during the earliest phases of planetary history. Other fundamental questions posed by fluvial and fluvial-like features on planetary bodies include the possible erosive action of large-scale outpourings of very fluid lavas, such as those that may have produced the remarkable canali forms on Venus; the ability of exotic fluids, such as methane, to create fluvial-like landforms, as observed on Saturns moon, Titan; and the nature of sedimentation and erosion under different conditions of planetary surface gravity. Planetary fluvial geomorphology also illustrates fundamental epistemological and methodological issues, including the role of analogy in geomorphological/geological inquiry.

The vanishing cryovolcanoes of Ceres

Ahuna Mons is a 4-km-tall mountain on Ceres interpreted as a geologically young cryovolcanic dome. Other possible cryovolcanic features are more ambiguous, implying that cryovolcanism is only a recent phenomenon or that other cryovolcanic structures have been modified beyond easy identification. We test the hypothesis that Cerean cryovolcanic domes viscously relax, precluding ancient domes from recognition. We use numerical models to predict flow velocities of Ahuna Mons to be 10–500 m/Myr, depending upon assumptions about ice content, rheology, grain size, and thermal parameters. Slower flow rates in this range are sufficiently fast to induce extensive relaxation of cryovolcanic structures over 108–109 years, but gradual enough for Ahuna Mons to remain identifiable today. Positive topographic features, including a tholus underlying Ahuna Mons, may represent relaxed cryovolcanic structures. A composition for Ahuna Mons of >40% ice explains the observed distribution of cryovolcanic structures because viscous relaxation renders old cryovolcanoes unrecognizable.

Episodes of fluvial and volcanic activity in Mangala Valles, Mars

A new mapping-based study of the 900-km-long Mangala Valles outflow system was motivated by the availability of new high-resolution images and continued debates about the roles of water and lava in outflow channels on Mars. This study uses photogeologic analysis, geomorphic surface mapping, cratering statistics, and relative stratigraphy. Results show that Mangala Valles underwent at least two episodes of fluvial activity and at least three episodes of volcanic activity during the Late Amazonian. The occurrence of scoured bedrock at the base of the mapped stratigraphy, in addition to evidence provided by crater retention ages, suggests that fluvial activity preceded the deposition of two of the volcanic units. Crater counts performed at 30 locations throughout the area have allowed us to construct the following timeline: (1) formation of Noachian Highlands and possible initial flooding event(s) before ~1 Ga, (2) emplacement of Tharsis lava flows in the valley from ~700 to 1000 Ma, (3) a megaflooding event at ~700-800 Ma sourced from Mangala Fossa, (4) valley fill by a sequence of lava flows sourced from Mangala Fossa ~400-500 Ma, (5) another megaflooding event from ~400 Ma, (6) a final phase of volcanism sourced from Mangala Fossa ~300-350 Ma, and (7) emplacement of eolian sedimentary deposits in the northern portion of the valley ~300 Ma. These results are consistent with alternating episodes of aqueous flooding and volcanism in the valles. This pattern of geologic activity is similar to that of other outflow systems, such as Kasei Valles, suggesting that there is a recurring, and perhaps coupled, nature of these processes on Mars.

Tidal Heating in a Magma Ocean within Jupiter's Moon Io

Active volcanism observed on Io is thought to be driven by the temporally periodic, spatially differential projection of Jupiters gravitational field over the moon. Previous theoretical estimates of the tidal heat have all treated Io as essentially a solid, with fluids addressed only through adjustment of rheological parameters rather than through appropriate extension of the dynamics. These previous estimates of the tidal response and associated heat generation on Io are therefore incomplete and possibly erroneous because dynamical aspects of the fluid behavior are not permitted in the modeling approach. Here we address this by modeling the partial-melt asthenosphere as a global layer of fluid governed by the Laplace Tidal Equations. Solutions for the tidal response are then compared with solutions obtained following the traditional solid-material approach. It is found that the tidal heat in the solid can match that of the average observed heat flux (nominally 2.25 W m−2), though only over a very restricted range of plausible parameters, and that the distribution of the solid tidal heat flux cannot readily explain a longitudinal shift in the observed (inferred) low-latitude heat fluxes. The tidal heat in the fluid reaches that observed over a wider range of plausible parameters, and can also readily provide the longitudinal offset. Finally, expected feedbacks and coupling between the solid/fluid tides are discussed. Most broadly, the results suggest that both solid and fluid tidal-response estimates must be considered in exoplanet studies, particularly where orbital migration under tidal dissipation is addressed.

Viscous flow rates of icy topography on the north polar layered deposits of Mars

We investigate the importance of viscous flow in shaping topography at the north polar layered deposits (NPLD) of Mars by using finite element modeling to calculate the distribution of stresses and flow velocities. Present-day impact craters on theNPLDare too small and cold for viscous relaxation tohavebeen an important mechanism in controlling their current dimensions; this effect may be ignored when analyzing crater size-frequency distributions. Scarps at the NPLDmargins, where avalanches of dust and carbon dioxide frost occur, are sufficiently steep, high, andwarm to experience significant viscous flow.We find flow velocities at the base of these steep scarps on the order of tens to hundreds of cm/yr, which are fast enough to significantly affect their slopeover kiloyear timescales. Alternatively, the scarps could be close to steady state in which observed block falls provide a competing effect to viscous flow.

Automated detection of geological landforms on Mars using Convolutional Neural Networks

The large volume of high-resolution images acquired by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has opened a new frontier for developing automated approaches to detecting landforms on the surface of Mars. However, most landform classifiers focus on crater detection, which represents only one of many geological landforms of scientific interest. In this work, we use Convolutional Neural Networks (ConvNets) to detect both volcanic rootless cones and transverse aeolian ridges. Our system, named MarsNet, consists of five networks, each of which is trained to detect landforms of different sizes. We compare our detection algorithm with a widely used method for image recognition, Support Vector Machines (SVMs) using Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) features. We show that ConvNets can detect a wide range of landforms and has better accuracy and recall in testing data than traditional classifiers based on SVMs.

Rootless tephra stratigraphy and emplacement processes

Volcanic rootless cones are the products of thermohydraulic explosions involving rapid heat transfer from active lava (fuel) to external sources of water (coolant). Rootless eruptions are attributed to molten fuel–coolant interactions (MFCIs), but previous studies have not performed systematic investigations of rootless tephrostratigraphy and grain-size distributions to establish a baseline for evaluating relationships between environmental factors, MFCI efficiency, fragmentation, and patterns of tephra dispersal. This study examines a 13.55-m-thick vertical section through an archetypal rootless tephra sequence, which includes a rhythmic succession of 28 bed pairs. Each bed pair is interpreted to be the result of a discrete explosion cycle, with fine-grained basal material emplaced dominantly as tephra fall during an energetic opening phase, followed by the deposition of coarser-grained material mainly as ballistic ejecta during a weaker coda phase. Nine additional layers are interleaved throughout the stratigraphy and are interpreted to be dilute pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits. Overall, the stratigraphy divides into four units: unit 1 contains the largest number of sediment-rich PDC deposits, units 2 and 3 are dominated by a rhythmic succession of bed pairs, and unit 4 includes welded layers. This pattern is consistent with a general decrease in MFCI efficiency due to the depletion of locally available coolant (i.e., groundwater or wet sediments). Changing conduit/vent geometries, mixing conditions, coolant and melt temperatures, and/or coolant impurities may also have affected MFCI efficiency, but the rhythmic nature of the bed pairs implies a periodic explosion process, which can be explained by temporary increases in the water-to-lava mass ratio during cycles of groundwater recharge.

Fragmentation mechanisms associated with explosive lava–water interactions in a lacustrine environment

Rootless cones form when partially outgassed lava interacts explosively with external water. The explosions represent an end-member system that can elucidate mechanisms of explosive magma–water interactions in the absence of magmatic fragmentation induced by outgassing. The proportion of finely fragmented ejecta (i.e., ash), generated in rootless explosions, may contribute significantly to the energy of the explosion even if the ash volume is small relative to coarser ejecta. Laboratory experiments indicate that the degree of melt–water mixing and energy release are proportional to the abundance of blocky grains, fragmented by brittle disintegration, which effectively contribute thermal energy to the system. To constrain the mechanisms and dynamics of rootless explosive activity, we assess the nature and modes of fragmentation and ejecta characteristics through morphological, textural, and density analysis of rootless tephra associated with a pāhoehoe lava flow in a lacustrine (lake basin) environment. We observe strong correlations between the mean grain size and the mass percentage of both blocky (negative power law trend) and fluidal (positive logarithmic) tephra clasts of all sizes. We interpret these trends as scale-dependent fragmentation behavior due to the decreasing efficacy of hydrodynamic fragmentation as it occurs over finer scales, especially over the ash size range. Additionally, all analyzed beds contain fine ash-sized blocky and mossy clasts, which are thought to be diagnostic of a high transfer rate of thermal to mechanical energy, characteristic of molten fuel–coolant interactions. These results agree with a recent model of rootless cone formation, prior fragmentation theory, and scaled laboratory experiments and therefore provide a field-based analog for future experimental and modeling efforts.

Autonomous exploration of planetary lava tubes using a multi-rover framework

Orbital photographic and remote sensing surveys of the Moon and Mars show evidence of lava tube formation. Lava tube caves, including collapsed tubes with skylights, are of enormous importance to geology and astrobiology because they (1) allow direct examination of bedrock, potentially including materials brought up from depths that are otherwise inaccessible from the surface; (2) provide good protection from solar proton event radiations; and (3) by analogy to Earth, might provide access to a rich biosphere hidden from the surface, specifically adapted to life in that extreme environment. While previous mission paradigms have prevented exploration of lava tube caves on Mars, new robotic exploration technologies and paradigms can now make this possible. A potential point of failure for current missions arises from the use of a single agent (e.g., single rover) to conduct the entire mission. Such an “all-in-one” rover must carry onboard a large and cumbersome array of instruments, sensors, computers, and communications equipment. Moreover, this type of rover must be remotely commanded and kept away from hazardous environments for fear of damage or overturn, thus incurring the loss of the entire mission. Such inherent deficiencies hold back the scope of the science mission for which the rover was originally deployed. However, these restrictions could be mitigated using an alternative multi-rover architecture for autonomous robotic space exploration. This system, termed “Tier-Scalable Reconnaissance”, would combine mobile robotic surface probes coupled with a base rover, in situ operational autonomy, and multi-tiered science reconnaissance to permit robotic traversal of risky, science-rich environments in a way that the loss of one or more robotic agents need not jeopardize the entire mission. As a prelude to actual planetary exploration, there are ready analog environments on Earth where such a multi-rover framework could be pre-deployed, tested, and evaluated.