Cj Smith

Trends in underlying causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011 (D:A:D): a multicohort collaboration

BACKGROUNDnWith the advent of effective antiretroviral treatment, the life expectancy for people with HIV is now approaching that seen in the general population. Consequently, the relative importance of other traditionally non-AIDS-related morbidities has increased. We investigated trends over time in all-cause mortality and for specific causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011.nnnMETHODSnIndividuals from the Data collection on Adverse events of anti-HIV Drugs (D:A:D) study were followed up from March, 1999, until death, loss to follow-up, or Feb 1, 2011, whichever occurred first. The D:A:D study is a collaboration of 11 cohort studies following HIV-1-positive individuals receiving care at 212 clinics in Europe, USA, and Australia. All fatal events were centrally validated at the D:A:D coordinating centre using coding causes of death in HIV (CoDe) methodology. We calculated relative rates using Poisson regression.nnnFINDINGSn3909 of the 49,731 D:A:D study participants died during the 308,719 person-years of follow-up (crude incidence mortality rate, 12.7 per 1000 person-years [95% CI 12.3-13.1]). Leading underlying causes were: AIDS-related (1123 [29%] deaths), non-AIDS-defining cancers (590 [15%] deaths), liver disease (515 [13%] deaths), and cardiovascular disease (436 [11%] deaths). Rates of all-cause death per 1000 person-years decreased from 17.5 in 1999-2000 to 9.1 in 2009-11; we saw similar decreases in death rates per 1000 person-years over the same period for AIDS-related deaths (5.9 to 2.0), deaths from liver disease (2.7 to 0.9), and cardiovascular disease deaths (1.8 to 0.9). However, non-AIDS cancers increased slightly from 1.6 per 1000 person-years in 1999-2000 to 2.1 in 2009-11 (p=0.58). After adjustment for factors that changed over time, including CD4 cell count, we detected no decreases in AIDS-related death rates (relative rate for 2009-11 vs 1999-2000: 0.92 [0.70-1.22]). However, all-cause (0.72 [0.61-0.83]), liver disease (0.48 [0.32-0.74]), and cardiovascular disease (0.33 [0.20-0.53) death rates still decreased over time. The percentage of all deaths that were AIDS-related (87/256 [34%] in 1999-2000 and 141/627 [22%] in 2009-11) and liver-related (40/256 [16%] in 1999-2000 and 64/627 [10%] in 2009-11) decreased over time, whereas non-AIDS cancers increased (24/256 [9%] in 1999-2000 to 142/627 [23%] in 2009-11).nnnINTERPRETATIONnRecent reductions in rates of AIDS-related deaths are linked with continued improvement in CD4 cell count. We hypothesise that the substantially reduced rates of liver disease and cardiovascular disease deaths over time could be explained by improved use of non-HIV-specific preventive interventions. Non-AIDS cancer is now the leading non-AIDS cause and without any evidence of improvement.nnnFUNDINGnOversight Committee for the Evaluation of Metabolic Complications of HAART, with representatives from academia, patient community, US Food and Drug Administration, European Medicines Agency and consortium of AbbVie, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, ViiV Healthcare, Merck, Pfizer, F Hoffmann-La Roche, and Janssen Pharmaceuticals.

Paradoxical reactions during tuberculosis treatment in patients with and without HIV co-infection

Background: It has been suggested that deterioration of tuberculosis (TB) during appropriate treatment, termed a paradoxical reaction (PR), is more common and severe in HIV positive individuals on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Method: A study was undertaken to determine the frequency of PR and its associated features in a population of HIV+TB+ patients and a similar sized group of HIV−TB+ individuals. Results: PR occurred in 28% of 50 HIV+TB+ patients and 10% of 50 HIV−TB+ patients. Disseminated TB was present in eight of 13 HIV+TB+ patients and four of five HIV−TB+ patients with PR. In 28 HIV+TB+ patients starting HAART, PR was significantly associated with commencing HAART within 6 weeks of starting antituberculosis treatment (pu200a=u200a0.03) and was more common in those with disseminated TB (pu200a=u200a0.09). No association was found between development of PR and baseline CD4 count or CD4 response to HAART. Conclusions: PR is common in HIV infected and uninfected individuals with TB. Early introduction of HAART and the presence of disseminated TB appear to be important in co-infected patients.

Projected life expectancy of people with HIV according to timing of diagnosis

Background and objectives:Effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) has contributed greatly toward survival for people with HIV, yet many remain undiagnosed until very late. Our aims were to estimate the life expectancy of an HIV-infected MSM living in a developed country with extensive access to ART and healthcare, and to assess the effect of late diagnosis on life expectancy. Methods:A stochastic computer simulation model of HIV infection and the effect of ART was used to estimate life expectancy and determine the distribution of potential lifetime outcomes of an MSM, aged 30 years, who becomes HIV positive in 2010. The effect of altering the diagnosis rate was investigated. Results:Assuming a high rate of HIV diagnosis (median CD4 cell count at diagnosis, 432u200acells/&mgr;l), projected median age at death (life expectancy) was 75.0 years. This implies 7.0 years of life were lost on average due to HIV. Cumulative risks of death by 5 and 10 years after infection were 2.3 and 5.2%, respectively. The 95% uncertainty bound for life expectancy was (68.0,77.3) years. When a low diagnosis rate was assumed (diagnosis only when symptomatic, median CD4 cell count 140u200acells/&mgr;l), life expectancy was 71.5 years, implying an average 10.5 years of life lost due to HIV. Conclusion:If low rates of virologic failure observed in treated patients continue, predicted life expectancy is relatively high in people with HIV who can access a wide range of antiretrovirals. The greatest risk of excess mortality is due to delays in HIV diagnosis.

Systemic sclerosis associated pulmonary hypertension: improved survival in the current era

Objectives: To measure survival, haemodynamic function and functional class in patients with systemic sclerosis associated pulmonary arterial hypertension (SSc-PAH) in two treatment eras. Methods: Six year longitudinal study of 92 consecutive patients with SSc-PAH diagnosed by cardiac catheterisation. Data were collected both prospectively and retrospectively. Patients were given basic treatment (diuretics, digoxin, oxygen and warfarin). Where clinically indicated, a prostanoid was used as advanced treatment (historical control group). From 2002, the range of treatments available expanded to include bosentan, which was generally the preferred treatment (current treatment era group). Survival was measured from the date of diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension by cardiac catheterisation. Six minute walking distance and haemodynamic function were measured at the time of diagnosis and at least one month after treatment was started. Results: The historical control group comprised 47 patients, all of whom received basic treatment; 27 of these were also treated with prostanoids. The current treatment era group comprised 45 patients, all of whom received bosentan as preferred treatment. Kaplan–Meier survival in the historical control group was 68% at one year and 47% at two years. Survival in the current treatment era group was 81% and 71% (p u200a=u200a 0.016) at one and two years, respectively. Pulmonary vascular resistance increased in the historical control group (by 147 dyn·s·cm−5), whereas in the current treatment era group, it remained stable over an average of nine months (decrease of 16 dyn·s·cm−5, p < 0.006). Conclusion: Survival of selected patients with SSc-PAH has improved in the current treatment era. In contrast to patients treated historically with basic drugs and prostanoids, patients treated in the current treatment era had improved survival associated with a lack of deterioration in cardiac haemodynamic function.

Late presenters in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: uptake of and responses to antiretroviral therapy

Objectives: To investigate the characteristics and clinical, immunological and virological outcomes for individuals presenting for care with low CD4 cell counts. Methods: Individuals aged > 16 years presenting for care for the first time were identified between 1 January 1996 and 31 December 2002. Late presenters were those with CD4 cell count < 50×106 cells/l. Follow-up was until last contact, death or 31 December 2002. Results: Late presenters formed 15.3% (110) of the group; they were more likely to be female (35% versus 24%), heterosexual (53% versus 38%), and of Black-African ethnicity (39% versus 27%) than other individuals. Over a median follow-up of 2.5 years, 13% of late presenters died. Ninety-nine patients started antiretroviral treatment; Of the 11 patients who did not start antiretroviral treatment, eight died within 3 months of presentation. Among those starting treatment, 87 (87.9%) achieved a viral load < 400 copies/ml and median CD4 cell counts increased from 43 × 106 cells/l at 0–2 months after presentation to 204 × 106 cells/l at 1 year. Over the first year, 71 patients attended at least one outpatient visit (median, 4.5; range, 0–39), 21 attended at least one day case visit (median, 0; range, 0–15) and 49 were admitted as an inpatient (median, 0; range, 0–4). Conclusions: Those presenting for care with very low CD4 cell counts may make large demands on clinical resources, particularly over the first few months. While some patients do have a poor outcome on highly active antiretroviral therapy, many will benefit from this therapy and will experience good immunological and virological responses.

Response to combination antiretroviral therapy: variation by age.

Objective:To provide information on responses to combination antiretroviral therapy in children, adolescents and older HIV-infected persons. Design and setting:Multicohort collaboration of 33 European cohorts. Subjects:Forty-nine thousand nine hundred and twenty-one antiretroviral-naive individuals starting combination antiretroviral therapy from 1998 to 2006. Outcome measures:Time from combination antiretroviral therapy initiation to HIV RNA less than 50 copies/ml (virological response), CD4 increase of more than 100 cells/μl (immunological response) and new AIDS/death were analysed using survival methods. Ten age strata were chosen: less than 2, 2–5, 6–12, 13–17, 18–29, 30–39 (reference group), 40–49, 50–54, 55–59 and 60 years or older; those aged 6 years or more were included in multivariable analyses. Results:The four youngest age groups had 223, 184, 219 and 201 individuals and the three oldest age groups had 2693, 1656 and 1613 individuals. Precombination antiretroviral therapy CD4 cell counts were highest in young children and declined with age. By 12 months, 53.7% (95% confidence interval: 53.2–54.1%) and 59.2% (58.7–59.6%) had experienced a virological and immunological response. The probability of virological response was lower in those aged 6–12 (adjusted hazard ratio: 0.87) and 13–17 (0.78) years, but was higher in those aged 50–54 (1.24), 55–59 (1.24) and at least 60 (1.18) years. The probability of immunological response was higher in children and younger adults and reduced in those 60 years or older. Those aged 55–59 and 60 years or older had poorer clinical outcomes after adjusting for the latest CD4 cell count. Conclusion:Better virological responses but poorer immunological responses in older individuals, together with low precombination antiretroviral therapy CD4 cell counts, may place this group at increased clinical risk. The poorer virological responses in children may increase the likelihood of emergence of resistance.

Adverse events and treatment interruption in tuberculosis patients with and without HIV co-infection

Background: Serious treatment associated adverse events are thought to occur more frequently in individuals with tuberculosis (TB) who are co-infected with HIV. A study was undertaken to assess the frequency of serious (grade III/IV) adverse events and interruption of anti-TB treatment in the era of effective antiretroviral therapy. Methods: The incidence of serious adverse events was retrospectively compared in 312 individuals treated for TB, 156 of whom were co-infected with HIV. Results: 111 HIV infected individuals (71%) received highly active antiretroviral therapy at the same time as anti-TB treatment. Serious adverse events were recorded in 40% HIV infected and 26% HIV uninfected individuals (pu200a=u200a0.008). Peripheral neuropathy and persistent vomiting were more common in co-infected patients (p<0.001; pu200a=u200a0.006), although all cause interruption of anti-TB treatment occurred with similar frequency in the two groups (13% in HIV infected patients and 15% in HIV uninfected patients; pu200a=u200a0.74). In 85% of HIV infected patients and 87% of HIV uninfected individuals this was due to hepatotoxicity, which typically presented within 2 months of starting treatment. The median delay in restarting treatment was 4 weeks, so most individuals required full TB re-treatment. Conclusion: Despite a greater rate of serious (grade III/IV) adverse events among HIV infected individuals, discontinuation of anti-TB treatment occurred with a similar frequency in HIV infected and HIV uninfected individuals.

Factors Influencing Increases in CD4 Cell Counts of HIV-Positive Persons Receiving Long-Term Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy

BACKGROUNDnHighly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) results in an improvement in immunologic function. We sought to investigate the factors associated with increases in CD4 cell count among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive antiretroviral-naive patients starting HAART.nnnMETHODSnFive hundred ninety-six subjects were followed for a median of 2.5 years (interquartile range, 1.0-4.0 years). Factors associated with changes in CD4 cell counts in the first 3 months of HAART and from 3 months onwards were analyzed.nnnRESULTSnAfter 6, 12, and 24 months of HAART, the median increases in CD4 cell counts were 114, 181, and 248 cells/mm3, respectively; 84%, 84%, and 80% of subjects had a virus load of <400 copies/mL during the same periods. White ethnicity, higher pre-HAART virus load, and lower pre-HAART CD4 and CD8 cell counts were associated with greater increases in CD4 cell counts during the first 3 months of HAART. From 3 months onward, a greater cumulative proportion of time spent with virus load <400 copies/mL was associated with a more favorable change in CD4 cell count (an average increase of 5.2 cells/mm3/year [95% confidence interval [CI], 3.8-6.7 cells/mm3/year] for each extra 10% cumulative time spent with a virus load <400 copies/mL) (P<.0001). For every 100 cells/mm3 higher in baseline CD4 cell count, the increase was 6 cells/mm3/year less (95% CI, 2-11 cells/mm3/year) (P=.02). Sex, risk group, age, and HAART regimen were not associated with increases in CD4 cell counts.nnnCONCLUSIONSnThese findings emphasize the importance of maintaining virological suppression and suggest other factors that influence long-term CD4 cell response.

Deaths in the era of HAART: contribution of late presentation, treatment exposure, resistance and abnormal laboratory markers

Objectives:To describe the characteristics of deaths that occur among HIV-positive individuals in the HAART era. Design:Observational database. Methods:Deaths were reviewed that occurred among HIV-positive individuals seen at the Royal Free Hospital, London between January 1998 and December 2003. Results:Over the study period, there were 121 deaths; death rates declined from approximately 2.0/100 person-years of follow-up in 1998–2000 to approximately 1.0/100 person-years of follow-up in 2001–2003. Approximately one half of deaths (45.5%) were from AIDS-related causes and 74 deaths (61.2%) occurred in individuals who had received HAART: patients had been exposed to a median of seven (range 2–14) antiretroviral drugs and two-fifths had started treatment in the pre-HAART era. Another 15 patients had received only non-HAART treatment regimens prior to death. The median pre-death CD4 cell counts were 68 and 167 cells/μl among those who had and had not received HAART; 23 (31.1%) and 4 (8.5%) had HIV RNA < 400 copies/ml, respectively. Of the patients exposed to HAART for at least 6 months and who experienced viral rebound, information was available on resistance for 26 (21.5% of the total deaths) and 19 of those tested had at least one resistance mutation (median 5, range, 1–16). Conclusions:While mortality rates among HIV-infected individuals at our centre have fallen since 1988, the deaths that do now occur are more diverse and are the result of a number of factors, including late presentation, delayed uptake of HAART and the previous use of treatment combinations that are now viewed as suboptimal.

Does immune reconstitution syndrome promote active tuberculosis in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy

Objectives:To assess whether highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) contributes to the presentation of active tuberculosis (TB). Design:Retrospective single-centre cohort study. Methods:A total of 111 HIV-infected individuals with active TB were identified at an urban teaching hospital between February 1997 and April 2004. Those receiving HAART at the time of TB diagnosis were assessed. Results:Nineteen of 111 (17%) were receiving HAART when TB developed. Within this group there appeared to be two distinct populations. Thirteen of 19, 12 from ethnic or social groups with high background rates of TB, developed disease a median of 41 days (range, 7–109) after starting HAART (‘early TB’ group). In six of 19 (‘late TB’ group), TB occurred a median of 358 days after HAART initiation (range, 258–598). The ‘early TB’ group had lower CD4 cell counts when starting HAART in comparison with the ‘late TB’ group (median; 87 versus 218 × 106 cells/l; P = 0.04); however no difference was observed in the rate of change of CD4 cell count (P = 0.5) or HIV load. Paradoxical reaction rate in the ‘early TB’ group was significantly greater than in the ‘late-TB’ group (62 versus 0%, P = 0.02) and greater than in a similar control population who started HAART while taking anti-TB therapy (62 versus 30%, P = 0.05). Conclusions:These data suggest anti-HIV treatment may amplify the presentation of active TB. This has implications for antiretroviral programmes in countries with high TB rates and warrants prospective investigation of a larger cohort.