Claire Cameron Ponitz

A Structured Observation of Behavioral Self-Regulation and Its Contribution to Kindergarten Outcomes

The authors examined a new assessment of behavioral regulation and contributions to achievement and teacher-rated classroom functioning in a sample (N = 343) of kindergarteners from 2 geographical sites in the United States. Behavioral regulation was measured with the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) task, a structured observation requiring children to perform the opposite of a dominant response to 4 different oral commands. Results revealed considerable variability in HTKS scores. Evidence for construct validity was found in positive correlations with parent ratings of attentional focusing and inhibitory control and teacher ratings of classroom behavioral regulation. Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that higher levels of behavioral regulation in the fall predicted stronger levels of achievement in the spring and better teacher-rated classroom self-regulation (all ps < .01) but not interpersonal skills. Evidence for domain specificity emerged, in which gains in behavioral regulation predicted gains in mathematics but not in language and literacy over the kindergarten year (p < .01) after site, child gender, and other background variables were controlled. Discussion focuses on the importance of behavioral regulation for successful adjustment to the demands of kindergarten.

Investigating the links between the subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: a cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers.

Little is known about how components of executive function (EF) jointly and uniquely predict different aspects of academic achievement and how this may vary across cultural contexts. In the current study, 119 Chinese and 139 American preschoolers were tested on a battery of EF tasks (i.e., inhibition, working memory, and attentional control) as well as academic achievement tasks (i.e., reading and mathematics). Results demonstrate that although working memory performance in both cultures was comparable, Chinese children outperformed American children on inhibition and attentional control tasks. In addition, the relation between components of EF and achievement was similar in the two countries. Working memory uniquely predicted academic achievement, with some intriguing patterns in regard to tasks requiring complex processing. Inhibition uniquely predicted counting but did not uniquely predict calculation. Attentional control predicted most aspects of achievement uniformly and was the most robust predictor for reading in both countries. In sum, the data provide insight into both cultural variability and consistency in the development of EF during early childhood.

The ISI Classroom Observation System: Examining the Literacy Instruction Provided to Individual Students

The Individualizing Student Instruction (ISI) classroom observation and coding system is designed to provide a detailed picture of the classroom environment at the level of the individual student. Using a multidimensional conceptualization of the classroom environment, foundational elements (teacher warmth and responsiveness to students, classroom management) and instructional elements (teacher-child interactions, context, and content) are described. The authors have used the ISI system to document that children who share the same classroom have very different learning opportunities, that instruction occurs through interactions among teachers and students, and that the effect of this instruction depends on children’s language and literacy skills. This means that what is effective for one child may be ineffective for another with different skills. With improving classroom observation systems, the dynamics of the complex classroom environment as it affects student learning can be better understood.

Measuring Behavioral Regulation in Four Societies

The present study examined the psychometric properties of scores from a direct measure of behavioral regulation, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS) with 3- to 6-year-old children in the United States, Taiwan, South Korea, and China. Specifically, we investigated (a) the nature and variability of HTKS scores, including relations to teacher-rated classroom behavioral regulation; and (b) relations between the HTKS and early mathematics, vocabulary, and literacy skills. Higher HTKS scores were significantly related to higher teacher ratings of classroom behavioral regulation in the United States and South Korea but not in Taiwan and China. Also, higher HTKS scores were significantly related to higher early mathematics, vocabulary, and literacy skills beyond the influence of demographic variables and teacher-rated classroom behavioral regulation. These initial findings suggest that HTKS scores may be interpreted as reflecting early behavioral regulation in these 4 societies and that behavioral regulation is important for early academic success in the United States and in Asian countries.

Early Adjustment, Gender Differences, and Classroom Organizational Climate in First Grade

We examined gender differences in the first‐grade transition, exploring child and classroom contributions to self‐control and achievement in a rural sample. Teachers (n = 36) reported on childrens (n = 172) initial adjustment difficulty and end‐of‐year self‐control. Observed classroom organization and teacher‐reported classroom chaos measured complementary aspects of classroom organizational climate. Childrens literacy and mathematics skills were assessed in the fall and spring. Boys had more difficulty than girls adjusting to first grade, and initial adjustment fully explained gender differences in self‐control. Neither observed organization nor teacher‐reported chaos predicted self‐control, and there were no gender differences in achievement. However, children in well‐organized and low‐chaos classrooms achieved greater literacy gains than those in poorly organized and chaotic classrooms. Boys made greater gains in mathematics in low‐chaos classrooms, whereas no association existed between mathematics and chaos for girls. Discussion highlights gender differences in early school adjustment and features of well‐organized classrooms and their implications for learning.

Age- and Schooling-Related Effects on Executive Functions in Young Children: A Natural Experiment

We employed a cutoff design in order to examine age- and schooling-related effects on executive functions. Specifically, we looked at development of working memory and response inhibition over the period of 1 school year in prekindergarten and kindergarten students born within 4 months of each other. All children improved on executive function and word-decoding tasks from the beginning to the end of the year. Additionally, we found prekindergarten- and kindergarten-schooling effects for the working memory and word-decoding tasks (p < .05), and a trend-level prekindergarten-schooling effect for the response inhibition task (p < .10).

Introduction to the Special Issue on Data-Based Investigations of the Quality of Preschool and Early Child Care Environments

Children’s preschool and early child care environments are critical contexts in which to support learning and development in early childhood. Enrollment in preschool programs has risen steadily over the past 10 years, especially among children from families that lack economic and social resources. Now, almost 60% of U.S. children attend preschool before going to school, and the prevalence of children attending any type of out-of-home child care prior to school entry is even greater (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). By virtue of their prevalence alone, these contexts hold great potential for contributing to (or thwarting) patterns of healthy social and academic development. However, much remains to be learned about how early educational settings relate to children’s learning and development. Developmental and educational science requires a richer understanding of the predictors, qualities and characteristics, and consequences of children’s early school environments as well as the mechanisms underlying their influence. This special issue and the research described within are situated in a national funding and policy context that presses for evidence-based practice in American schools. Ultimately, the goal of such efforts is to increase the quality of preschool and early child care practices, processes, and environments by increasing educaEARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT, 20(2), 201–210 Copyright

Back to the Future: Contrasting Scientific Styles in Understanding Reading:

In this rejoinder to Willis, Smagorinsky, and Douglas (this issue of Educational Researcher), the authors discuss how many of the points raised by Willis and Smagorinsky regarding their original article, which appeared in the March 2009 issue of Educational Researcher, are concerned less with the methods themselves than with different styles of science. The authors of this rejoinder examine their differing styles of science, using Stanovich’s 2003 framework, and call for consilience and the understanding that multiple perspectives and methods are needed to solve the important and perplexing problems that students and teachers will face in the 21st century.