Claire Freeman

Local Government and Emerging Models of Participation in the Local Agenda 21 Process

Local Agenda 21, with its major emphasis on local accountability and democratization, challenges perceptions of local governance and offers a long overdue opportunity, for local authorities in particular, to develop broad-based, effective, participatory structures. This paper examines initial responses to this opportunity. It models the newly emerging participatory structures and processes in selected English local authority areas, and demonstrates that there may be no one path that local authorities should follow. A number of alternative approaches to community participation can and are being adopted, contingent upon local circumstances.

Development of an ecological mapping methodology for urban areas in New Zealand

Abstract At present there is no ecologically based mapping system designed for application to urban areas in New Zealand. New Zealand’s ecological structure is particularly interesting as it combines indigenous habitats comprising significant numbers of endemic species with a vibrant imported ecology comprising habitats characteristic of their primarily European and Australian origins. In New Zealand, the focus to date in habitat mapping has been on developing vegetation mapping techniques for application to predominantly indigenous habitats in rural areas. Thus, they omit reference to the type of mixed exotic-indigenous vegetation associated with habitats common to urban areas, such as cliff faces, disused quarries, private gardens and grounds, river and rail corridors. A project was undertaken in conjunction with the Dunedin City Council to develop a habitat map of the city. The aim was to produce a map that would accommodate the diverse highly modified habitats characteristic of Dunedin and that would incorporate all types of urban open space ranging from indigenous habitats, such as forest to exotic habitats such as lawns, and residential gardens. The project developed a land use and habitat classification hierarchy applicable to the New Zealand urban context, including a classification system for private gardens. This paper describes the classification system that was developed, its benefits, limitations and application. The map is the first attempt to record all natural land uses, including gardens in any New Zealand city at a detailed level, i.e. at a scale of 1:3000. In all 1100 separate habitat parcels were mapped. The map revealed that whilst Dunedin is a city rich in natural vegetation very little of this is indigenous or even predominantly indigenous vegetation. A Geographic Information System was used to map the urban habitats and store the habitat data. The habitat map and associated data will be used by the council in developing an open space strategy for the city.

Children and Their Urban Environment: Changing Worlds

Part 1: Changing Environments, Changing Lives 1. Childrens life worlds: Adapting to Physical and Social Change 2. Same World - Different World Part 2: Activity Spaces 3. Home 4. School 5. Neighbourhood 6. City Centre 7. Service Space 8. Cultural Space 9. Natural Space Part 3: Making a Difference: Creating Positive Environments for Children 10. Accessing Space: Mobility 11. Design 12. Professionals and Children: Working Together 13. Conclusion: Childrens Play and Resilient Cities

The great experiment with devolved NRM governance: lessons from community engagement in Australia and New Zealand since the 1980s

Since the 1980s, natural resource management (NRM) in Australia and New Zealand has been an ambitious experiment with community engagement. Underpinned by theory about public participation, adult education and agricultural extension, but also influenced by neoliberalisms calls for ‘smaller government’, governments embraced engagement as a cost-effective approach to effecting change. Critiques of community engagement are often misguided as they are frequently based on inauthentic or poor engagement practices. Moreover, these critiques have often failed to grasp the nature of the problems being addressed, acknowledge the contributions of engagement or understand the importance of building adaptive capacity to respond to an increasingly complex and uncertain future. The foundations for this commissioned article emerged at a workshop where we reflected and deliberated on our experience as NRM researchers and practitioners over the past 20 years. We begin by identifying the key theories underpinning community engagement and community-based NRM (CBNRM). We then reflect on the experience with community engagement in NRM over the past 20 years and identify key lessons for practitioners and policy makers. Drawing on these insights, and the developing theory around new governance and resilience thinking, we identify opportunities for community engagement under a range of possible futures.

Garden Size, Householder Knowledge, and Socio-Economic Status Influence Plant and Bird Diversity at the Scale of Individual Gardens

Domestic gardens collectively cover substantial areas within cities and play an important role in supporting urban biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. The extent of their contribution to urban biodiversity is ultimately determined by the attitudes, motivations, and practices of their owners. We identified variables characterizing individual householders and their properties that explained variation in perennial plant and avian species richness and plant diversity among 55 gardens in New Zealand. The size of the vegetated area was most important in explaining bird and plant diversity, independent of property size. Also important and positively associated with plant richness were socio-economic status and ability to discriminate between native and exotic species. Median housing age and neighborhood green space were less important. Contrary to expectations, better educated householders who demonstrated pro-environmental orientation (NEP) did not necessarily have gardens with greater plant diversity, however, people with higher NEP scores tended to have gardens with more structurally complex vegetation. Similar variables were important in explaining native and exotic species richness, but higher exotic plant diversity was associated with older people with smaller properties of lower value. Avian species richness increased primarily with vegetated area, but also the areas of beds and hedges. We demonstrate that although householder knowledge is an important determinant of garden biodiversity, vegetated area is most important. Promoting urban garden biodiversity requires that larger vegetated properties be supported and encouraged, and that planners should consider biodiversity when formulating policies concerning garden size, property size, and consents that may result in a progressive increase in the proportion of built over/paved areas.

Closing the Gap: Communicating to Change Gardening Practices in Support of Native Biodiversity in Urban Private Gardens

Private gardens collectively comprise the largest green space in most cities and the greatest potential for increasing the extent of wildlife-friendly and native-dominated habitat, improving the quality of ecosystem services, and providing opportunities for urban dwellers to reconnect with nature. Because attitudes and values driving landscape preferences in gardens are complex and often not conducive to biodiversity, and a gap exists between the possession of knowledge or values and the expression of pro-environmental behavior, facilitating change in gardening behavior is challenging. We attempted to improve knowledge and influence values, attitudes, and gardening behavior of 55 householders in favor of native biodiversity and environmentally friendly practices, through a two-way communication process, or interactive dialog, during a process of biodiversity documentation of their gardens. Informative feedback on their garden with a normative component was also provided. Despite being well educated and knowledgeable about common species at the start of the study, an increase in knowledge and shift in attitude was detected in 64% of householders: 40% reported a greater understanding of wildlife, and 26% made changes in their gardens, 13% to support native biodiversity. The normative component of our feedback information was of particular interest to 20% of householders. Because neighborhood norms influence gardening practices, changes adopted by a proportion of householders should be perpetuated across neighborhoods. The process of biodiversity assessment, dialog, and feedback was effective in improving knowledge of wildlife and native species, and stimulated a shift in attitude that resulted in native-friendly gardening practices. These changes were detected primarily through open self-report questions, rather than quantitative measures.

Commuting lives: children's mobility and energy use

Globally, the issue of energy use and climate change is at the forefront of many national and international agendas, and also an issue central to childrens lives and well-being. This paper examines how children are both affected by and contribute to the problems associated with unsustainable energy use as it relates to the growth of car dependent lives. The paper presents the findings of a study of travel as it relates to the everyday lives of children in the city of Dunedin in New Zealand. The study found that children currently lead complex car dependent lives. This extensive car reliance presents a serious and largely unrecognised challenge to the sustainable planning and management of the urban environment. The move towards more sustainable transportation can bring benefits for both the environment and for childrens lives.

Coasts for Sale: Gentrification in New Zealand

The “sea change” phenomenon, or the movement of people from metropolitan to non-metropolitan parts of the country (and especially to coastal areas) is well-documented in Australia, but is now becoming increasingly apparent in New Zealand also. Since 2000 there has been an unprecedented and extremely rapid expansion in the property market, with prices booming for settlements in scenic locations, especially along the coast. This paper reports on a study of six coastal settlements in New Zealand, all of which have experienced this property boom. It found that many of the characteristics of gentrification are becoming increasingly apparent in coastal New Zealand, with particularly negative ramifications for certain parts of the community, namely indigenous communities and low income rental residents, though for many residents, the experience has been largely positive. Planning has so far failed to engage with the gentrification process or to recognise its implications for the wider coastal user community. The paper explores the contradictions associated with the gentrification process. It argues that the future of these communities needs to be wrested back from the dictates of the property market by implementing community-based planning, supported by local government.

'Professionalising' Participation: From Rhetoric to Practice

Local government is increasingly seeking to encourage young peoples participation in local government planning and decision-making. This paper examines the relationship between professionals in local government and the young people who are the focus of local government participatory initiatives. We argue that whilst the move towards developing participation initiatives is welcome, there is a need to adopt a process of critical reflection with regard to these initiatives. The case of one New Zealand city is examined where young people express their views on the effectiveness or otherwise of their councils participation initiatives. Our findings suggest that whilst well intentioned these initiatives have had limited success in facilitating meaningful participation and perhaps the participation process as currently practised is in urgent need of review.

Children's neighbourhoods, social centres to 'terra incognita'

Neighbourhoods are changing as people lead more spatially dispersed lives diminishing their local social connections. This paper explores the way children interact with their neighbourhoods to see whether they are still socially connected to their neighbourhoods or leading more spatially dispersed social lives. It reports findings from a study of 92 children aged 9–11 in Dunedin, New Zealand. The study found that while many children did have minimal social contact with their neighbourhood, other children retained strong social connections. Key factors determining childrens levels of social connectivity include attendance at the local school, levels of independence, neighbourhood urban form, road density and locally accessible classmates.