Clare Ginger

Effectiveness of a participatory modeling effort to identify and advance community water resource goals in St. Albans, Vermont

Natural resource managers face complex challenges in addressing non-point source water pollution. A participatory modeling approach was applied in the St. Albans Bay watershed to identify the most effective phosphorus control options to achieve the load reductions required by the Lake Champlain Phosphorus Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL). Stakeholders participated in the collection of data in the watershed, model creation, development of policy scenarios, and interpretation of model results. The participatory modeling approach employed in this study led to the identification of new solutions to an old water resource problem regarding phosphorus loads to streams and St. Albans Bay. The modeling process provided a perceived neutral atmosphere for discussing water pollution issues that have historically been divisive and provided participants with greater understanding of local environmental issues and reduced historic conflict among actors. This study highlights the importance of considering the dynamics of social and technical factors in the use of modeling in natural resource planning processes. The approach led to stakeholder agreement about problems and potential solutions generated in the modeling process. As the process ended, local decision makers were moving forward to implement solutions identified to be most cost-effective.

Special forest products in context: gatherers and gathering in the Eastern United States

This report provides an introduction to the people who gather special forest products (SFPs) in the eastern United States, the role these resources play in their lives, and implications for management on national forest lands, particularly in relation to the Pilot Program on Forest Botanicals (P. L. 106-113, ? 339(a)). SFPs encompass a wide variety of products and provide important livelihood support through both market and nonmarket economic values. In addition, many gatherers value social dimensions of SFPs outside the economic realm. Gatherers are a diverse group (men and women, varied ethnic and cultural backgrounds), who often draw on substantial knowledge to harvest SFPs. Many are concerned about conservation and the sustainability of harvesting practices. Contextual factors affecting SFP activities include land management regimes and social conditions, such as household economies and life stage, at scales that range from macro-level markets (national, international) to micro-level household and individual use.

Property Concepts, Ecological Thought, and Ecosystem Management: A Case of Conservation Policymaking in Vermont

Ecosystem management focuses on dynamic processes that cross boundaries. The consequent need to work across boundaries clashes with notions of property. Beginning in 1996, the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources reformulated its land acquisition policy to incorporate newly articulated ecological goals that parallel those of ecosystem management. The process triggered a debate about property rights and the role of the state in promoting ecological goals through land acquisition. We examined ecological and property concepts drawn on during the process, changes in the planning process, and implications for ecosystem management. Using the idea of property as divisible bundles of rights, the state advocated conservation easements, which split ownership among parties, and promoted the concept of a working landscape to accommodate resource-based livelihoods. Our analysis illustrates the importance of examining interactions among concepts, social relations, and physical space to understand relationships between ecological principles and property rights issues in regional environmental planning.

Access to Natural Resources on Private Property: Factors Beyond Right of Entry

Discussions of access to natural resources on private lands in the United States often focus on property rights and ownership. In Maine, changing ownership of private forestland has been associated with increased posting against trespass. This raises concerns about the terms of physical entry to land for resource use. While the right of entry is an important component of access to natural resources, other factors also affect access. Building on a theory proposed by Ribot and Peluso (2003), this study of nontimber forest product gatherers and forest landowners/managers in northern Maine examines social and biophysical factors that affect access to natural resources. We consider who is affected by these factors, and suggest ways forward to promote more equitable access to nontimber forest products, especially for Native Americans in the region.

Integrating knowledge, interests and values through modelling in participatory processes: dimensions of legitimacy

This paper examines two participatory environmental planning cases in which modelling played an important role. The cases occurred in Vermont. They provide contrasts in the use of technology to model future scenarios: magic markers and mylar for forest mapping as compared to computer modelling for watershed assessment. The paper describes how modelling and models were employed to integrate knowledge, interests and values in each case. It explores two dimensions of legitimacy, procedural and scientific expertise, in these modelling processes. It concludes with the implications of decision-making authority for legitimacy and the integration of knowledge and values.

Interpreting Roads in Roadless Areas Organizational Culture, Ambiguity, and Change in Agency Responses to Policy Mandates

This article examines how Bureau of Land Management personnel interpreted roads in the context of wilderness policy implementation. It assesses ambiguity of and change in policy using three frameworks from the organizational culture literature. The frameworks emphasize (a) shared understandings, (b) differences among agency units, and (c) fragmentation within units. The analysis shows how interpretations of roads are shaped by existing understandings and provide opportunities for new understandings to develop. It also shows how policy initiatives can be understood as simultaneously requiring organization-wide change, selective change, and no change. This suggests that using multiple analytical frames is important for understanding the implementation of ambiguous and changing policy.

The Northern Forest Canoe Trail: economic impacts and implications for community development

Recreation is increasingly promoted as a sustainable means of diversifying rural economies, yet few studies have explored how the characteristics of a recreational activity and its economic impact can vary significantly between communities. This research examined the economic impact of paddler recreation in six communities along the Northern Forest Canoe Trail. Results indicate that approximately 90,000 visitors paddled the waterways in 2006. Their spending created

An Owner's Manual to “Ownership”: A Reply to Lachapelle and McCool

12 million in economic impacts, supporting about 280 jobs. However, economic impacts varied considerably between communities, due to differences in the number of users, trip lengths, lodging choices, group size, travel distances, and use of outfitters. This finding suggests that, while expenditures by visitors may help diversify local economies, community development practitioners and land managers must be cognizant of the conditions that facilitate visitor use and spending to ensure that potential economic benefits contribute positively to community development.

Does Science Matter? Resource Planning in the Green Mountain National Forest

In a recent article in Society & Natural Resources, Lachapelle and McCool (2005) argue for developing the concept of ‘‘ownership’’ to address challenges and shortcomings in natural resource planning. The principal challenge they identify is ‘‘multiple and competing values and goals,’’ and the shortcomings include ‘‘one-way dissemination of information,’’ ‘‘disjointed execution of mandated planning phases,’’ and ‘‘grandstanding and political posturing.’’ The concept of ownership—‘‘the association of citizens and agencies to collectively define, share, and address problem situations with an implicit redistribution of power’’ (p. 283)–is offered as a new, more productive direction for natural resource planning. They build on the idea of ownership as it is raised in the literature on collaborative processes for natural resource planning and management (e.g., Wondolleck and Yaffee 2000) and describe three characteristics to develop the definition of ownership: ownership in process, outcomes, and distribution. The authors were forthcoming in their objective to ‘‘stimulate discourse about this emerging concept.’’ We found the article stimulating because the concept of ownership resonates with us (we have advanced similar ideas under the rubrics of community-based conservation [Minteer and Manning 2003a, 2003b] and participatory policy analysis [Haight and Ginger 2000]), and also because it raises important issues in natural resource planning. If principles of ownership are to guide natural resource planning, these issues must be addressed. Moreover, we believe that these principles can be strengthened by a directed program of social science research. In our reply to Lachapelle and McCool, we respond to issues raised by their paper and identify questions that might contribute to social science research in this arena.

Special Forest Products on the Green Mountain and Finger Lakes National Forests: a research-based approach to management

Conflict between stakeholders can impede implementation of national forest management plans, as was the case in the Green Mountain National Forest in Vermont. To promote discussion among stakeholders, several meetings were held, some of which provided an opportunity to examine the role of science in resource planning. Credible scientists with different perspectives gave presentations and engaged in discussion with stakeholders. Findings suggest that stakeholders may attempt to use science to exacerbate controversy; however, facilitators can structure meetings so that science can play a positive role, resulting in stakeholder learning and shifts in perspective. In this Vermont example, direct interaction with scientists appeared to have been a key component of stakeholder learning. Given the need for credible science in policy and planning debates, this finding has important implications for scientists seeking to disseminate research results in ways that will impact management.