Clare M. Mehta

Are Older Adults Less Subject to the Sunk-Cost Fallacy Than Younger Adults?

The sunk-cost fallacy is a decision-making bias that reflects the tendency to invest more future resources in a situation in which a prior investment has been made, as compared with a similar situation in which a prior investment has not been made (e.g., the tendency to spend more time watching a boring movie one paid to watch than to watch a boring, but free, movie). Most research on this fallacy has been conducted with college students (Arkes & Ayton, 1999). Although a growing number of studies have investigated the sunk-cost fallacy in children, adolescents (Klaczynski, 2001), and nonhuman animals (Navarro & Fantino, 2005), no research has investigated whether older adults are less likely than younger adults to commit the sunk-cost fallacy (cf. Bruine de Bruin, Parker, & Fischhoff, 2007). Drawing from prior research on age differences in negativity and positivity biases in information processing, we hypothesized that older adults would be less likely than younger adults to commit the sunk-cost fallacy. Soman (2004) offered loss aversion as a potential explanation for the sunk-cost fallacy. Supporting evidence comes from research in which young adults have reported that their sunk-cost decisions are motivated by loss avoidance (Frisch, 1993). This focus on losses may reflect younger adults’ negativity bias in information processing. Younger adults weigh negative information more heavily than positive information (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001). In contrast, older adults demonstrate a positivity effect (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005). Their decisions reflect a more balanced view of gains and losses (Wood, Busemeyer, Koling, Cox, & Davis, 2005). If older adults are less likely than younger adults to focus exclusively on losses, and loss aversion contributes to the sunk-cost fallacy, then older adults may be less likely than younger adults to commit the sunkcost fallacy.

“Sex Isn’t Something You Do with Someone You Don’t Care About”: Young Women’s Definitions of Sex

STUDY OBJECTIVE How young women define sexual intercourse has implications for their sexually transmitted infection (STI) risk. This study investigated young womens (1) definitions of sex, (2) understanding of a unique sex event, and (3) definitions of when a sex event begins and ends. DESIGN Using semi-structured interviews, young women were asked to define sex, define when a sex event began and ended, and were asked whether they thought their partners would agree. Interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis. SETTING Participants were recruited from an urban adolescent health clinic in the Northeastern United States. PARTICIPANTS Twenty-four heterosexual, sexually active young women contributed data for analysis. INTERVENTIONS None. RESULTS Young womens definitions of sex varied. Some included anal and oral sex while others did not. Time between sex events, new condom use, and new erection were used to define unique sex events. Some believed sex began with foreplay. Others believed sex began when the penis entered the vagina. Some believed sex ended when the penis was withdrawn from the vagina. Others believed sex ended with orgasm for one or both partners. Young women talked about the influence of relationship type on their definitions of sex. CONCLUSIONS Variations in young womens definitions of sex may influence their responses to clinical questions about sexual activity and their understanding of their STI risk. As such, our findings have important implications for clinical counseling regarding sexual behavior and correct condom use and for researchers investigating young womens sexual behavior.

Associations between Affect, Context, and Sexual Desire in Depressed Young Women

We investigated associations of sexual desire with time of day, physical and social context, and positive and negative affect using momentary sampling in 44 depressed young women (mean age = 18). Analyses revealed that depressed young women experienced sexual desire when with their boyfriends and later in the evening. Sexual desire was also positively associated with positive affect. Sexual desire was not associated with negative affect or physical context. This research suggests that sexual desire is experienced by depressed young women in normative developmental social contexts. Our findings may help clinicians and sexual health educators in correcting the myth that depressed women do not have sexual desire.

Should educators and parents encourage other-gender interactions? Gender segregation and sexism

We investigated gender differences in the association between gender-segregated peer preferences and sexism in adolescents (15–17 years, 60 boys and 85 girls). To assess gender-segregated peer preferences, adolescents nominated peers for interaction in two contexts: ‘hanging out’ at home and working on a school project. The Modern Sexism Scale [Swim, J. K., K. J. Aikin, W. S. Hall, and B. A. Hunter. 1995. “Sexism and Racism: Old-Fashioned and Modern Prejudices.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (2): 199–214] measured two dimensions of sexism: Antagonism towards Womens Demands (believing feminist issues are unimportant) and denial of continuing discrimination (believing gender discrimination no longer exists). For boys, Antagonism towards Womens Demands was associated with gender-segregated peer preferences in the school and home context. For girls, Denial of Continuing Discrimination was associated with gender-segregated peer preferences in the home context. Results are informative for educators and for other professionals interested in reducing inequality and sexism among adolescents.

Perceived Advantages and Disadvantages of Being a Female Graduate Student in the US and the UK

We build on Diana Leonards work on gender and graduate education by qualitatively investigating the perceived advantages and disadvantages of being a female graduate student in the USA and the UK. We interviewed six female students (ages 22–30) pursuing masters degrees in psychology or social sciences in the USA and the UK. Students from both countries reported the advantages and disadvantages of being a woman in their graduate programmes. Advantages included being the majority in their fields and receiving more lenient treatment from faculty. Disadvantages included being viewed in terms of stereotypical gender roles and receiving unwanted sexual attention. Participants also discussed strategies for managing their gender as they pursued their graduate education. We consider these findings in light of Leonards work on gender and graduate education and from an ambivalent sexism framework.

Contextualizing Bem: The Developmental Social Psychology of Masculinity and Femininity

Abstract Purpose This chapter uses Sandra Bem’s scholarship to demonstrate the intersections between developmental and social psychological approaches to understanding masculinity and femininity. Methodology/approach To highlight Sandra Bem’s contributions, we examined masculinity and femininity, broadly defined, from a socio-developmental theoretical perspective, conceptualizing gender development as embedded within a socio-historical context. Findings Our review of the literature illustrates that both age and social contextual features influence femininity and masculinity and more specifically that in childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood, femininity and masculinity vary depending on the sex (same- vs. other-sex) of those in the social context. Along with demonstrating the current utility and extensions of Sandra Bem’s research, we also emphasize the feminist and social justice applications of her body of work. Research limitations Weaknesses in the existing methodology where instruments are designed based on the assumption that masculinity and femininity are stable traits rather than characteristics that vary are discussed. Limitations to research focused on either social or developmental perspectives are highlighted and suggestions for a more integrative approach are provided. Originality/value Similar to how Sandra Bem’s work showed that sex and gender need not be linked, research and theory on the developmental and contextual specificity of gender also demonstrate that there is freedom in the expression of gender.

Health Communication With Same-Sex and Other-Sex Friends in Emerging Adulthood

Objective We examined health-related communication between same-sex and other-sex friends and how communication was related to health-related behavior. Participants Data from 243 emerging adults attending college (Mage = 18.96, SD = 1.43; 55.6% male) were analyzed. Methods Participants completed measures assessing the frequency in which they talked about and made plans to engage in exercise and nutrition-related behaviors with friends, as well as how often they engaged in exercise and nutrition-related behaviors. Results In general, participants reported more health-related communication with same-sex friends. Health-related communication with same-sex friends was positively related to health behaviors for men and women. However, the pattern of results differed for men and women depending on the topic of communication and the behavior being examined. Conclusion Our study extends the literature by examining the role of sex of friends in health communication and planning and how interactions with friends relate to health-promoting behavior.