Clarissa M. E. Richardson

Perfectionism, procrastination, and psychological distress.

Using a cross-panel design and data from 2 successive cohorts of college students (N = 357), we examined the stability of maladaptive perfectionism, procrastination, and psychological distress across 3 time points within a college semester. Each construct was substantially stable over time, with procrastination being especially stable. We also tested, but failed to support, a mediational model with Time 2 (mid-semester) procrastination as a hypothesized mechanism through which Time 1 (early-semester) perfectionism would affect Time 3 (end-semester) psychological distress. An alternative model with Time 2 perfectionism as a mediator of the procrastination-distress association also was not supported. Within-time analyses revealed generally consistent strength of effects in the correlations between the 3 constructs over the course of the semester. A significant interaction effect also emerged. Time 1 procrastination had no effect on otherwise high levels of psychological distress at the end of the semester for highly perfectionistic students, but at low levels of Time 1 perfectionism, the most distressed students by the end of the term were those who were more likely to have procrastinated earlier in the semester. Implications of the stability of the constructs and their association over time, as well as the moderating effects of procrastination, are discussed in the context of maladaptive perfectionism and problematic procrastination.

The Short Form of the Revised Almost Perfect Scale

We created a shorter and more refined item set from the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS–R; Slaney, Mobley, Trippi, Ashby, & Johnson, 1996; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001) to measure 2 major dimensions of perfectionism: standards (high performance expectations) and discrepancy (self-critical performance evaluations). In Study 1, after testing the internal structure of the measure (N = 749), a subset of the current APS–R items was derived (Short Almost Perfect Scale [SAPS]) that possessed good psychometric features, such as strong item–factor loadings, score reliability, measurement invariance between women and men, and criterion-related validity through associations with neuroticism, conscientiousness, academic performance, and depression. Controlling for neuroticism and conscientiousness, factor mixture modeling supported a 2-factor, 3-class model of perfectionism, and results were consistent with labeling the classes as nonperfectionists and adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists. Measurement results were cross-validated in a separate sample (N = 335). Study 2 also provided substantial evidence for the convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validity of SAPS scores. Both studies supported the SAPS as a brief and psychometrically strong measure of major perfectionism factors and classes of perfectionists.

Classification Challenges in Perfectionism

High performance expectations are central to perfectionism, but because most participants endorse high standards, it becomes difficult for practitioners and researchers to accurately screen for perfectionists. We addressed problems linked to the measurement and classification of perfectionism by testing various strategies aimed at broadening the range and skew of scores on the Standards subscale from the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R; Slaney, Mobley, Trippi, Ashby, & Johnson, 1996). Randomly assigned participants (N = 506) completed the APS-R following standard instructions or 1 of 2 variations, one prompting participants to consider their responses in light of a normal distribution of scores and another in which participants used a visual analog (slider) scale. The visual analog scale produced more differentiated scores, but range restrictions and skewed distributions remained for all 3 variations. Statistical transformations improved skew. Factor mixture modeling was conducted using transformed and nontransformed perfectionism scores along with criterion indicators of emotion regulation (reappraisal or suppression), perceived stress, and depression. Results supported a 3-class model, although more balanced distributions of classes emerged than were previously reported. Perfectionists were differentiated from nonperfectionists by their higher standards scores. Maladaptive perfectionists scored highest among the classes on most self-critical perfectionism indicators, suppression, perceived stress, and depression. Adaptive perfectionists had the lowest levels of perceived stress and depression and scored highest on reappraisal. Both perfectionist classes had generally comparable concerns about mistakes, but criterion indicators suggested those were more problematic for maladaptive perfectionists. Results supported the value of incorporating adaptive and maladaptive criterion indicators in classification models.

Self-critical perfectionism, daily stress, and disclosure of daily emotional events.

Although disclosure of stressful events can alleviate distress, self-critical perfectionism may pose an especially strong impediment to disclosure during stress, likely contributing to poorer psychological well-being. In the current study, after completing a measure of self-critical perfectionism (the Discrepancy subscale of the Almost Perfect Scale--Revised; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001), 396 undergraduates completed measures of stress and disclosure at the end of each day for 1 week. Consistent with hypotheses and previous research, multilevel modeling results indicated significant intraindividual coupling of daily stress and daily disclosure where disclosure was more likely when experiencing high stress than low stress. As hypothesized, Discrepancy moderated the relationship between daily stress and daily disclosure. Individuals higher in self-critical perfectionism (Discrepancy) were less likely to engage in disclosure under high stress, when disclosure is often most beneficial, than those with lower Discrepancy scores. These results have implications for understanding the role of stress and coping in the daily lives of self-critical perfectionists.

Perfectionism in Academic Settings

In this chapter, we build a model supporting a multivalenced view of perfectionism in academic settings. Our model is derived from several other conceptual and empirical approaches for understanding the effects that personality factors have on academic outcomes. We argue that adaptive and maladaptive strands of perfectionism are two sides of the same (high) standards coin. The sides differ in the effects that self-critical aspects of perfectionism can have on outcomes relevant to students in academic settings. We explain how this inherently performance-based construct affects academic outcomes in positive and negative ways, but we only briefly acknowledge other ways that perfectionism becomes intertwined with personal and interpersonal issues in academic settings, such as in the context of relationships and social support, athletics, health, and psychological well-being. Selected findings in this literature are organized according to a dominant two-factor model of perfectionism and to the ways perfectionism has been analyzed. Our focus is primarily on students in primary, secondary, and postsecondary academic settings, but we later note the multilevel structure of those settings and the limited attention in the literature paid to other key players in those contexts (e.g., teachers, professors, and others). Other limitations also will be addressed, including (a) the overreliance on self-report, (b) the dimensional structure of perfectionism that is typically embraced in measurement and analysis but rarely tested, (c) too few longitudinal studies (and related measurement challenges) and too many cross-sectional ones, and (d) relatively few studies that examine important demographic (e.g., sex, race/ethnicity, national origin) and cultural (e.g., acculturation, collectivism, individualism) concomitants of perfectionism. Proposed remedies include collaborative multisite studies with stakeholders as integral research-to-practice team members and the implementation of creative research design and statistical techniques.

Perfectionism affects change in psychological symptoms.

The primary goal of this study was to examine how perfectionism affects psychological symptoms during the course of treatment. We examined session-by-session symptom changes in a sample of 105 adult clients who presented for counseling at a psychology training clinic housed at a large Midwestern university in the United States. Using a recently developed measure of perfectionism (Short Almost Perfect Scale [SAPS]) that possesses good psychometric features, we were able to investigate effects of both maladaptive (high self-criticism) and adaptive (high standards with low self-criticism) perfectionistic characteristics on indicators of personal and interpersonal psychological distress across time. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that both symptomatic distress and interpersonal problems improved over the course of therapy. Maladaptive perfectionism was associated with higher levels of interpersonal problems and distress at the outset of therapy, and related differentially to change patterns in symptom distress and interpersonal problems over the course of treatment. Maladaptive perfectionism, however, was not related to level of symptoms at the end of therapy. Adaptive perfectionistic characteristics were associated with fewer interpersonal problems at the beginning and end of therapy. Results suggest the value of assessing perfectionistic characteristics at the onset of treatment, even for clients not presenting with obvious concerns linked to such individual differences.

Influence of Client Attachment and Gender on Therapy Transfers: A Multilevel Examination

Transferring psychotherapy clients from one clinician to another has been a common practice in most psychological training facilities (Clark et al., 2011; Flowers & Booraem, 1995). Despite this practice, very little empirical research has examined the impact of this process on psychotherapy retention and client outcomes. In the current study, we examined symptom changes over the course of 4 pretransfer and 4 posttransfer sessions in a sample of 35 adult clients receiving psychotherapy services from master’s- and doctoral-level trainees in a psychology training clinic. At intake, clients completed a measure of adult attachment orientation and for each session, clients completed a measure of their overall psychological distress for the week preceding the session. Multilevel modeling analyses revealed that client attachment orientations and gender were significantly associated with transfer-related therapy outcomes. Clients with increasing levels of distress pretransfer were most at-risk for not following through with treatment posttransfer. Also, for those who did follow through, clients with more anxious attachment orientations were likely to report higher levels of psychological distress posttransfer than were those with less anxious orientations. Future work should examine whether such increased distress levels persist or are ultimately reduced through additional treatment sessions. Results suggest several issues that should be considered by supervisors and clients during the process of transferring clients to a new therapist.

Trainee wellness: self-critical perfectionism, self-compassion, depression, and burnout among doctoral trainees in psychology

ABSTRACT Training to become a therapist is a uniquely challenging process with frequent evaluation and balancing of multiple roles (e.g. student, teacher, researcher, counselor, and supervisee). In fact, studies report high levels of stress and depression among graduate trainees in psychology. These vulnerabilities can be exacerbated when a trainee is in high in self-critical perfectionism, a feeling that one is never good enough. The present study examines associations between self-critical perfectionism, depression, and burnout among doctoral trainees in psychology, investigating the mediating role of self-compassion. The 119 participants were all students in clinical/counseling psychology doctoral programs. Results indicated that those higher in self-critical perfectionism reported higher levels of depression and burnout. Self-compassion partially mediated the relationship between self-critical perfectionism and depression, and burnout; those higher in self-compassion experienced lower levels of depression and burnout. These results point to the importance of facilitating the development of self-compassion among doctoral trainees, specifically those who are high in self-critical perfectionism.

Client perfectionism and psychological symptoms throughout psychotherapy

Abstract Objective: Given the psychological issues experienced by individuals high in perfectionistic concerns (maladaptive perfectionism), or a feeling as if one is never good enough, and discrepancies in the literature as to whether these individuals experience benefits from therapy, it is imperative that research examine whether perfectionism actually improves throughout therapy. The current study improves upon past research by examining changes in perfectionism (both perfectionistic concerns and strivings) throughout therapy, rather than simply measuring perfectionism at pre- and post-therapy. This study also investigates how these changes in perfectionism, if they exist, impact changes in psychological symptoms. Methods: In total, 153 clients at a psychology training clinic in which a general treatment paradigm was implemented completed the Short Almost Perfect Scale (SAPS; Rice et al., 2014) and Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2; Lambert et al., 1996) prior to intake and sessions 1, 3, and 5. Results and Conclusions: Multilevel modeling results revealed that there were significant improvements in perfectionistic concerns and symptoms although, as expected, no significant changes in perfectionistic strivings were observed. Additionally, there was a trend effect for changes in perfectionistic concerns being associated with changes in symptoms. Further, results of latent difference score analyses revealed that changes in symptoms throughout therapy preceded changes in perfectionistic concerns. Clinical and methodological significance of this article: This study uses multilevel modeling (MLM) and latent difference score analyses to assess changes in perfectionism throughout therapy, whether they are associated with changes in symptoms, and whether changes in perfectionism precede changes in symptoms, or vice versa. To date, there have been discrepancies in the literature as to whether perfectionism improves throughout therapy, and most of these have only measured perfectionism at pre- and post-therapy. This study is an improvement over past studies as it measures perfectionism throughout therapy which has implications for therapy work with perfectionistic clients.