Clarry H. Lay

At Last, My Research Article on Procrastination

Abstract This paper considered three studies designed to examine procrastinatory behavior. In Study I, a general form (G) of a true-false procrastination scale was created. This form was based on an earlier version of the scale containing parallel forms A and B. Procrastination was positively related to measures of disorganization and independent of need-achievement, energy level , and self-esteem . High scorers on the procrastination scale were more likely to return their completed inventory late. Procrastination was unrelated to grade-point average ( R = −10). In Study II, subjects completed Form G of the procrastination scale and a variation of Littles (1983) Personal Projects Questionnaire. Based on ratings of their personal projects, procrastinators and nonprocrastinators were distinguished in a number of ways, foremost being the nonprocrastinators more positive response to the project dimension of stress and the procrastinators greater sensitivity to how enjoyable the project was in terms of time spent. In Study III, after completing a personality inventory, air-passengers awaiting their flight departure were asked to take an envelope with them and to mail it back on a designated date. Procrastinators were less accurate in doing so than were nonprocrastinators. Various aspects of procrastinatory behavior were discussed, including a reconsideration of the defining of the construct.

TRAIT PROCRASTINATION AND THE BIG-FIVE FACTORS OF PERSONALITY

Abstract Trait procrastination is viewed as a summary variable linked to the predisposition to engage in dilatory behaviour. This paper sought to trace the sources of trait procrastination by locating it within the five-factor personality structure. Study 1 concerned self-ratings on trait adjectives (in Dutch) that were relevant in some way to procrastinatory behaviour. The position of these adjectives on the five factors of personality (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness, and Conscientiousness) was known. Respondents were 161 female and 117 male students attending a university in The Netherlands. They also completed a Dutch translation of a measure of trait procrastination. In Study 2, 271 female and 81 male Canadian university students completed the measure of trait procrastination and the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (in English). The results were remarkably consistent across the two samples. Trait procrastination was largely associated with lack of Conscientiousness. Trait adjectives highly related to trait procrastination (Study 1) included ‘undisciplined’, ‘lazy’, and ‘disorderly’. Trait procrastination in Study 2 was highly related to lower scores on each of the six facets of Conscientiousness (Competence, Order, Dutifulness, Achievement-Striving, Self-Discipline, and Deliberation). There were also some relations to Neuroticism, primarily in terms of tentativeness (Study 1) or Impulsiveness (a facet of Neuroticism) in Study 2. Relatively minor links to the lack of Extraversion were noted, essentially in terms of inactivity. Implications of the main findings locating trait procrastination within the Big-five personality structure were discussed. This overall approach added to our understanding of what characterizes the concept of trait procrastination and what is unrelated.

The Process of Acculturation and Basic Goals: Testing a Multidimensional Individual Difference Acculturation Model with Iranian Immigrants in Canada

Trois des objectifs de base des immigrants dans les societes multiculturelles (la sauvegarde de l’heritage culturel, l’insertion dans la societe d’acceuil et la preservation de la sante physique et psychologique) ont ete retenus comme variables dependantes dans l’elaboration d’un modele portant sur les differences individuelles du processus d’acculturation. Les trois predicteurs composites du modele furent: 1. L’adaptation psychosociale englobant le bien-etre psychologique, le competence biculturelle et le soutien social percu de l’outgroup; 2. Le rattachement a la famille et a la culture englobant l’allocentrisme familial, l’identite ethnique et le soutien percu de l’ingroup; 3. L’experience des conflits quotidiens relevant ou non de l’acculturation. On a aussi pris en consideration la fonction des deux modes d’acculturation que sont la differenciation et l’assimilation. Ce sont 81 iraniennes et 85 iraniens immigres au Canada qui ont contribuea cette recherche; leur âge median etait de 34 ans et leur temps de sejour median au Canada de sept ans. La validite du modele a ete mise a l’epreuve grâce au Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). L’adaptation psychosociale est en relation directe avec le comportement de l’outgroup (qui represente le contact avec la culture d’accueil) et la detresse psychosomatique. Le rattachement a la famille et a la culture est en relation directe avec le comportement de l’ingroup, et les conflits quotidiens sont relies a la detresse psychosomatique. En outre, chacun de ces predicteurs est associe avec chacun des deux types d’acculturation. En retour, ces modes d’acculturation predisent les variables dependantes comportementales. On examine enfin les retombees de ce modele sur des recherches futures. Three of the basic goals of immigrants in multicultural societies—maintenance of heritage culture, participation in the host society, and maintenance of psychological and physical health—were examined as outcome variables in a proposed individual difference model of the acculturation process. The three composite predictor variables in the model were psychosocial adjustment, consisting of psychological well-being, bicultural competence, and perceived outgroup social support; connectedness to family and culture, consisting of family allocentrism, ethnic identity, and perceived ingroup support; and the experience of acculturation-specific and non-specific daily hassles. The roles of separation and assimilation modes of acculturation were also examined. The research participants were 85 male and 81 female Iranian immigrants to Canada. Their median age was 34 years; their median length of residence in Canada was seven years. The viability of the model was supported through Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Psychosocial adjustment was directly related to outgroup behavior (reflecting contact with the host culture) and to psychophysical distress. Connectedness to family and culture was directly related to ingroup behavior, and daily hassles were directly related to psychophysical distress. Furthermore, each of these predictor variables was associated with either or both modes of acculturation. In turn, these modes of acculturation predicted the outcome behavior variables. Implications of the model for further research are discussed.

An assessment of appraisal, anxiety, coping, and procrastination during an examination period

High School students responded to an inventory which included dispositional measures of procrastination and social evaluation trait anxiety. Subsequently, and 7 days prior to their first examination (Stage 1), each of the 40 female and 23 male students completed measures of state anxiety, perception of the stressor situation, and ways of coping, all with regard to their approaching exam period. These judgments were repeated 1 day prior to their first examination (Stage 2), and again 5 days after their last examination (Stage 3). Correlational analyses indicated that threat and harm perceptions were highly positively related to state anxiety, whereas challenge and gain were moderately and negatively related. State anxiety was linked to emotion‐focused coping, but was independent of problem‐focused coping. In an analysis of variance, high procrastination, high trait anxious subjects felt the least challenged at Stage 1. In a ‘maverick’, post hoc analysis, high procrastinators were more likely than low procrastinators at each stage to promise themselves ‘that things will be different next time’. Discussion included an assessment of the need for specificity when using the Ways of Coping (Folkman and Lazarus, 1985) scale.

Ethnic Identity and Its Relation to Personal Self-Esteem: A Comparison of Canadian-Born and Foreign-Born Chinese Adolescents

Ethnic identity and its relation to personal self-esteem were examined by comparing 31 Chinese adolescents who immigrated to Canada and 31 Chinese adolescents who were Canadian born. The foreign-born adolescents were more likely to identify themselves as Chinese (rather than Chinese Canadian) and to include references to their ethnicity in response to an open-ended Who Am I Questionnaire, a variation of the Twenty Statements Test (M. H. Kuhn & T. S. McPartland, 1954). For the foreign-born group only, aspects of collective self-esteem were positively related to personal self-esteem. The differences between the groups supported a contextual emphasis for associating collective self-esteem with personal self-esteem. The data were consistent with an interpretation involving collectivistic-individualistic distinctions, with the foreign-born sample being more collectivistic.

A modal profile analysis of procrastinators: A search for types

Abstract This paper described two studies in which Skinner and Leis (1980a) Modal Profile Analysis was applied to scores on a procrastination scale and a number of other trait scales. In study I, ratings on 18 dimensions regarding 10 personal projects were also included in the Analysis. Four profiles were retained in this study, with procrastination defining two of them. In one profile, procrastinators were also high on the neurotic disorganization scale and the rebelliousness scale and had personal projects which, overall, were characterized by high stress, high difficulty and low progress, and on which less than adequate time was spent. In the second profile, the procrastinator was neurotically disorganized, low in organization, energy level, and need-achievement, and had projects which were low in difficulty and stress, and high in progress. In Study II, four profiles were retained with the male data, with procrastination defining two of them. With the female data, three profiles were retained, only one defined by procrastination. With females procrastination, neurotic disorganization, high cognitive failures, and low organization were linked with low self-esteem and low energy level. Such was not the case with males. Rather, in one profile, the disorganized procrastinator was high in other-directed self-monitoring and low in stimulus screening and sensitivity to rejection. In the other male profile, the disorganized procrastinator was high in private self-consciousness and breadth of interest, and low in both stimulus screening and other-directed self-monitoring. Various interpretations of the pertinent profiles in Studies I and II were made, particularly as they might relate to classifications of the underachiever. Correlation coefficients in Study II between procrastination and the other trait measures were also presented.

Trait procrastination, anxiety, and dilatory behavior

Abstract To examine the possible links between anxiety and procrastination, trait measures and self-report measures of dilatory behavior and state anxiety were obtained. A measure of state dejection, as distinguished from anxiety, was also included. Research participants were 23 female and 35 male first year Business Administration university students. Beginning 5 days prior to an examination period, these students reported on their feelings of anxiety and dejection and completed a dilatory behavior inventory regarding their behavior over the preceding 2 days. This was repeated every 2 evenings to yield three pre-examination assessments and two exam-day assessments. In a series of multiple regression analyses, trait procrastinators reported higher levels of pre-examination dejection than non-procrastinators (controlling for concurrent anxiety as a covariate), but did not report higher levels of state anxiety (controlling for concurrent dejection). Trait procrastination enhanced the prediction of pre-examination and exam-day dilatory behavior; trait and state anxiety did not. Furthermore, trait procrastination and trait anxiety were unrelated. It was concluded that anxiety plays a minor role, if any, in dilatory behavior, and should not be viewed as a strong correlate of trait procrastination.

Explaining lower‐order traits through higher‐order factors: the case of trait procrastination, conscientiousness, and the specificity dilemma

In proposing that the higher‐order factor (lack of) Conscientiousness is the major proximal source of the lower‐order trait procrastination, this study set up three approaches to examine this question: the degree to which a measure of the factor would parallel a measure of the trait in predicting dilatory behaviour and negative affect, the degree to which the factor would replace the trait in these predictions, and the extent to which the relations of the trait and the factor to negative affect would be mediated by Neuroticism. University students, 232 females and 48 males, completed a trait procrastination scale and the Conscientiousness and Neuroticism factor scales of the NEO‐PI‐R. They also responded to a measure of dilatory behaviour concerning their academic work, and to a measure of negative affect involving dejection and agitation. Trait procrastination was negatively related to the Conscientiousness factor and to each of its facets. Relations of trait procrastination and of Conscientiousness tended to parallel one another. Indicative of the specificity dilemma, trait procrastination outperformed Conscientiousness in predicting trait‐specific dilatory behaviour. On the other hand, Conscientiousness was the better predictor of dejection. The mediating role of Neuroticism tended to be comparable in linking both the trait and the factor to negative affect. Discussion centres on additional ways to overcome the specificity dilemma when attempting to locate the proximal source of a lower‐order trait within a higher‐order factor.

Self-handicappers and procrastinators: A comparison of their practice behavior prior to an evaluation ☆

Abstract Conceptually, procrastination shares certain characteristics with self-handicapping, and trait measures of both concepts are positively related. Nevertheless, there are important distinctions to be considered. With this in mind, the present paper compared the behavior of trait self-handicappers preparing for an evaluation with the behavior of trait procrastinators. Male and female high school students were given the opportunity to practice for a test of Ravens Progressive Matrices either in class (Study 1) or at home over a 5-day period (Study 2). They were randomly provided with a set of easy or difficult practice items. In Study 1 trait self-handicappers exhibited self-handicapping behavior by answering fewer practice items and reporting spending more time on an irrelevant task; trait procrastinators did not. In Study 2, both trait measures were related to dilatory behavior in beginning to practice at home. Other aspects of the results were considered and distinctions between the two concepts discussed.

Trait procrastination and affective experiences: Describing past study behavior and its relation to agitation and dejection

Previous research has primarily associated trait procrastination with dejection, and not agitation. The present study sought to confirm these earlier findings by examining the affect of trait procrastinators after their past study behavior had been primed in a written recollection assignment. The subjects were 38 male and 40 female university students. Procrastinators produced a higher number of dilatory behavior self-statements than nonprocrastinators. Baseline agitation was positively associated with this content and dejection negatively related. In hierarchical multiple-regression analyses, trait anxiety, baseline agitation, and concurrent dejection all contributed to the prediction of postrecollection agitation. In addition, trait procrastination and the number of dilatory self-statements interacted. Procrastinators making no mention of their defining behavior in their written recollections of past study behavior reported lower levels of postrecollection agitation than nonprocrastinators. In contrast, procrastinators who included a number of references to their past dilatory behavior expressed higher levels of agitation at Time 2, compared to nonprocrastinators. Baseline dejection, concurrent agitation, and trait anxiety contributed to the prediction of postrecollection dejection. Trait procrastination did not.