Claude A. Garcia

Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses

“Landscape approaches” seek to provide tools and concepts for allocating and managing land to achieve social, economic, and environmental objectives in areas where agriculture, mining, and other productive land uses compete with environmental and biodiversity goals. Here we synthesize the current consensus on landscape approaches. This is based on published literature and a consensus-building process to define good practice and is validated by a survey of practitioners. We find the landscape approach has been refined in response to increasing societal concerns about environment and development tradeoffs. Notably, there has been a shift from conservation-orientated perspectives toward increasing integration of poverty alleviation goals. We provide 10 summary principles to support implementation of a landscape approach as it is currently interpreted. These principles emphasize adaptive management, stakeholder involvement, and multiple objectives. Various constraints are recognized, with institutional and governance concerns identified as the most severe obstacles to implementation. We discuss how these principles differ from more traditional sectoral and project-based approaches. Although no panacea, we see few alternatives that are likely to address landscape challenges more effectively than an approach circumscribed by the principles outlined here.

Biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes: challenges and opportunities of coffee agroforests in the Western Ghats, India

The new approaches advocated by the conservation community to integrate conservation and livelihood development now explicitly address landscape mosaics composed of agricultural and forested land rather than only protected areas and largely intact forests. We refer specifically to a call by Harvey et al. (2008) to develop a new approach based on six strategies to integrate biodiversity conservation with sustainable livelihoods in Mesoamerican landscape mosaics. We examined the applicability of this proposal to the coffee agroforests of the Western Ghats, India. Of the six strategies, only one directly addresses livelihood conditions. Their approach has a clear emphasis on conservation and, as currently formulated risks repeating the failures of past integrated conservation and development projects. It fails to place the aspirations of farmers at the core of the agenda. Thus, although we acknowledge and share the broad vision and many of the ideas proposed by this approach, we urge more balanced priority setting by emphasizing people as much as biodiversity through a careful consideration of local livelihood needs and aspirations.

Systematic review of effects on biodiversity from oil palm production

BackgroundDuring the past decade there has been a growing interest in bioenergy, driven by concerns about global climate change, growing energy demand, and depleting fossil fuel reserves. The predicted rise in biofuel demand makes it important to understand the potential consequences of expanding biofuel cultivation.A systematic review was conducted on the biodiversity impacts of three first-generation biofuel crops (oil palm, soybean, and jatropha) in the tropics. The study focused on the impacts on species richness, abundance (total number of individuals or occurrences), community composition, and ecosystem functions related to species richness and community composition.MethodsLiterature was searched using an a priori protocol. Owing to a lack of available studies of biodiversity impacts from soybean and jatropha that met the inclusion criteria set out in the systematic review protocol, all analyses focused on oil palm. The impacts of oil palm cultivation on species richness, abundance, and community similarity were summarized quantitatively; other results were summarized narratively.ResultsThe searches returned 9143 articles after duplicate removal of which 25 met the published inclusion criteria and were therefore accepted for the final review. Twenty of them had been conducted in Malaysia and two thirds were on arthropods.Overall, oil palm plantations had reduced species richness compared with primary and secondary forests, and the composition of species assemblages changed significantly after forest conversion to oil palm plantation. Abundance showed species-specific responses and hence, the overall abundance was not significantly different between plantations and forest areas. Only one study reported how different production systems (smallholdings vs. industrial estates) affect biodiversity. No studies that examined the effects on ecosystem functions of reduced species richness or changes in community composition met the inclusion criteria. Neither were there studies that reported how areas managed under different standards (e.g. different certification systems) affect biodiversity and ecosystem function.ConclusionsOur review suggests that oil palm plantations have reduced species richness compared with primary and secondary forests, and the composition of species assemblage changes significantly after forest conversion to oil palm plantation. Effects of different production systems on biodiversity and ecosystem function are clear knowledge gaps that should be addressed in future research.Trial registrationCEE10-013

Dry Forests in Madagascar: Neglected and Under Pressure

SUMMARY The dry forests in Madagascar represent a remarkable tropical forest ecosystem, occupying almost the entire west slope of the island up to the very northern tip, especially on substrates associated with sedimentary formations. These forests span several woody vegetation types of the island, including (i) the southwestern coastal bushland, (ii) the southwestern dry spiny forest-thicket, and (iii) the western dry forest. These landscapes show a high degree of biodiversity with several centers of endemism hosting a globally unique fauna, with disparities in richness and diversity according to the groups, probably related to paleo-refugia. These landscapes also provide important ecosystem services for various ethnic groups residing along the coast, also hosting the only autochthonous group in Madagascar, the Mikea forest people. In this paper we review the scientific literature to highlight the importance of dry forests socio-ecological landscapes in order to identify knowledge gaps where future research is required to better inform management and policy to better balance conservation and development interests. For this, we recommend the adoption of transdisciplinary approaches that engage with a broad number of stakeholders in order to allow policy adaptations to better cope with current and future changes (e.g., agriculture, energy demands and needs).

Geographical Indications and Biodiversity in the Western Ghats, India Can Labeling Benefit Producers and the Environment in a Mountain Agroforestry Landscape?

Abstract A geographical indication (GI) is a form of protection highlighted in the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It protects intangible economic assets such as the quality and reputation of a product through market differentiation. It is considered a promising tool at the international level to maintain multifunctionality in rural landscapes and involve local populations in biodiversity management and conservation. Using the example of an existing GI for Coorg orange, a crop frequently associated with coffee agro-forestry systems in the mountain region of Kodagu (Western Ghats, India), we discuss how a GI can be successfully used by local producers and what conditions are needed for it to have a positive impact on the landscape and its associated biodiversity.

Comparative efficiency and accuracy of variable area transects versus square plots for sampling tree diversity and density

Agroforestry systems have been recognized as areas with high conservation potential, and there is a need to quickly assess the biodiversity and tree stocking density available in these systems. However, it is not clear if the commonly used fixed area plot is most efficient for sampling such landscapes, or if a different method could provide equivalent data with less effort. Thus, a field and simulation-based study was carried out to compare the efficiency and accuracy of a variable area transect versus the fixed area square plot. Field efficiency tests were carried out in three habitat types, robusta coffee plantations, arabica coffee plantations and a privately owned forest fragment, in Kodagu, southern India. A simulation study of bias, precision and accuracy of the two methods for tree density estimation also was carried out using various spatial distribution patterns and densities. The variable area transect was significantly more efficient per unit effort in the field than the fixed area square plot. In the simulation tests both methods performed equally well under random spatial distribution. However, under simulated aggregated distribution both methods were positively biased (square plot up to 12% at low density, variable area transect 9–12% at all densities), and under simulated regular distribution the variable area transect was slightly negatively biased (−5 to −7% at medium to high density). The variable area transect thus can be recommended over the square plot for rapid assessment of tree diversity and density, when the vegetation is expected to be randomly dispersed.

Reframing Community Forestry to Manage the Forest–Farm Interface

At the 2010 Montpellier conference on ‘Taking Stock of Smallholder and Community Forestry: Where do we go from here?’, researchers, policy-makers and practitioners came together to discuss historical trends and future directions for understanding and supporting forest sustainability and local livelihoods in forest-based communities. A consensus arising from these discussions was that there is a need to reframe and broaden approaches to understand forestry practised by smallholders and communities. The paper highlights three key topics from that discussion: (1) the need to reconsider definitions of community forestry, (2) the need to broaden understanding of rights surrounding forest resources and (3) the need to reframe research to focus on management of the forest–farm interface.

Does environmental certification in coffee promote “business as usual”? A case study from the Western Ghats, India

Conservation initiatives are designed to address threats to forests and biodiversity, often through partnerships with natural-resource users who are incentivized to change their land-use and livelihood practices to avoid further biodiversity loss. In particular, direct incentives programmes that provide monetary benefits are commended for being effective in achieving conservation across short timescales. In biodiversity-rich areas, outside protected areas, such as coffee agroforestry systems, direct incentives, such as certification schemes, are used to motivate coffee producers to maintain native tree species, natural vegetation, restrict wildlife hunting, and conserve soil and water, in addition to encouraging welfare of workers. However, despite these claims, there is a lack of strong evidence of the on-ground impact of such schemes. To assess the conservation importance of certification, we describe a case study in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot of India, in which coffee growers are provided price incentives to adopt Rainforest Alliance certification standards. We analyse the conservation and social outcomes of this programme by studying peoples’ experiences of participating in certification. Despite high compliance and effective implementation, we find a strong case for the endorsement of ‘business as usual’ with no changes in farm management as a result of certification. We find that such ‘business as usual’ participation in certification creates grounds for diminishing credibility and local support for conservation efforts. Working towards locally relevant conservation interventions, rather than implementing global blueprints, may lead to more meaningful biodiversity conservation and increased community support for conservation initiatives in coffee landscapes.

The Limits and Failures of Existing Forest Governance Standards in Semi—Arid Contexts

SUMMARY Dry forests today are managed following the standards of scientific forestry imported in the tropics in the XIXth century by the colonial empires. The model proved efficient to control deforestation and regulate production but its evolution even after decolonization increased the segmentation between forests and agriculture and the lack of consideration for local knowledge by the forest administration. The process of decentralization of forest management that disseminated in the 1990s aimed at bringing back local communities within the formal management of forests. However the results of this process, often restricted to a simple transfer of tools and techniques, have fallen below expectations. If discourses shifted towards a better recognition of local needs, knowledge and constraints, the day-to-day implementation of participatory forest management in the dry lands remains fraught with administrative inefficiencies and a mistrust of local communities. Sustainable management of dry forests is yet to be invented.

Exploring How Knowledge and Communication Influence Natural Resources Management With ReHab

Background and Aim. It is often assumed in natural resources management that communication helps with solving the ‘tragedy of the commons’ by way of shared knowledge and better coordination. ReHab is a role-playing game, both cooperative and competitive, exploring the role of knowledge production and communication for the conservation and management of natural resources through experiential learning. Method. ReHab pitches players as Harvesters or Rangers in an abstract landscape representation where a resource is distributed in discrete units of Biomass. The landscape is also a nesting and breeding ground for a protected migratory Bird. The Rangers’ task is to maximize Bird reproduction by creating protected areas, while Harvesters have to collect Biomass. Rules about biomass regeneration, distribution amongst harvesters, and bird reproduction are not disclosed to the players. A typical game session includes two successive scenarios: No communication between players, followed by open communication. A final debriefing session with all players focuses on eliciting a common understanding of the hidden rules, as well as the influence of individual or collective strategies on scenario outputs. The analysis includes records from 45 sessions played since 2008. Results. Our results show that in most cases communication improves the outcomes for both roles, Harvesters and Rangers, even though players construct and articulate rational decisions based on limited or even flawed understandings of the rules. In the absence of enforcement mechanisms, trust and communication prevail over knowledge and understanding when it comes to managing natural resources and resolving trade-offs between conservation and development.