Claude Alain

On the cognitive processes underlying contextual interference and observational learning.

The main goal of the present study was to determine whether observation of an unskilled model learning a timing task enables the observer to develop a cognitive representation of the task similar to the one acquired through physical practice (Adams, 1986; Bandura, 1977; Lee & White, 1990). To reach that goal, we tested whether a contextual interference effect would be obtained in a retention test of subjects who had observed an individual practicing three variations of a timing task under a random or a blocked schedule of practice. Similar patterns of results in an immediate retention test were found following observation and physical practice. This suggests that observation indeed engaged the observers in the same type of cognitive activities as did physical practice. Moreover, a schedule of practice made up of 100% physical practice led to improved learning compared with a schedule of practice made up of 50% observation followed by 50% physical practice. This suggests that learning is enhanced more by numerous implementations of a motor program than by its mere construction or retrieval.

The effects of the amount and variability of practice on the learning of a multi-segmented motor task

Since the Shea, J.B. and Morgan (1979) study, investigators have repeatedly shown that the learning of a set of movement patterns (as evaluated in a retention test) is enhanced when acquisition occurred under a random rather than a blocked schedule of practice. Supposedly, this is the case because a random schedule of practice necessitates more elaborate cognitive activities than a blocked schedule before each acquisition trial can be initiated. Our main objective was to determine whether the advantage for learning found for random practice increases as a function of the number of acquisition trials. During acquisition, the results indicated a general tendency for smaller movement reproduction errors under a blocked rather than a random schedule of practice. However, this effect disappeared with larger amount of acquisition trials. In retention, larger errors were observed when acquisition occurred under a blocked rather than a random schedule of practice. Finally, the disadvantage for learning observed for the blocked schedule of practice disappeared under a block-repeated condition in which each movement pattern was first practiced under a blocked schedule which was then repeated a second time. The results are discussed in terms of the so-called contextual interference effect and indicates some of its limitations.

Should Common Optimal Movement Patterns be Identified as the Criterion to be Achieved

Recently, a new paradigm has been proposed for the study of knowledge of performance (Schmidt & Young, 1991). In this paradigm, the experimenters identified an optimal kinematic movement pattern, based on the performance of a best subject, which was imposed on all subjects as the criterion to achieve. This approach, which assumes that this pattern is the best way for all subjects to do the task, was tested in the present experiment. In Experiment 1, a common optimal movement pattern could not be identified by an analysis of scatterplot graphs of the scores plotted as a function of various kinematic vanables or by correlating (within and across subjects [N = 14]) each kinematic variable with the score. In Experiment 2, subjects (N = 12) were retrained in 2 separate sessions, during which they tried to reproduce either a personal best or the best subjects template. Results indicated that scores were similar regardless of the template pattern being used. During training, however, subjects who used their personal template had a lower incidence of zero scores and were more consistent than those who used the template of the best subject. This provided a second line of evidence against the assumption that a common optimal movement pattern exists for this type of task.

Same-hand and different-hand finger pairings in two-choice reaction time: presence or absence of response competition?

Several two-choice reaction time experiments have compared conditions in which the two possible responses were from the same hand (same-hand pairing) or from different hands (different-hand pairing). Studies that used only the two relevant fingers on response keys reported shorter reaction times for the different-hand pairing. In other studies, two additional but irrelevant fingers were also in contact with response keys. These fingers were irrelevant in the sense that they never were required to respond. With this procedure, equivalent reaction times were found between same-hand and different-hand pairings. Reeve and Proctor (1988) recently have argued that using only two fingers results in response competition between the two fingers from the same hand, yielding shorter reaction times for the different-hand pairing condition. In contrast, when four fingers are placed on response keys, response competition should be absent for both the same-hand and the different-hand pairing conditions, resulting in equivalent reaction times. In the present work, reaction times associated with the same-hand pairing condition remained unchanged, irrespective of the number of fingers positioned on keys. In the different-hand pairing condition, reaction times were found to be longer when four fingers were used than when only two fingers rested on response keys. Thus, when four fingers are placed on keys, response competition appears to be present rather than absent. Other results showed that the response competition found in the different-hand pairing condition decreases with practice.

The influence of attention and response factors upon the spatial precue effect

Abstract Two experiments were conducted which examined the influence of attention allocation and response factors upon the precue effect (i.e., RT difference between valid and invalid precue trials) for both peripheral and foveally delivered stimuli. Reaction stimuli (light emitting diode) differed only with respect to presentation location which was precued by the precue signal with 75% accuracy. Both a 1-Response and a 2-Response task were used. In the former case, only attention allocation was free to contribute to the precue effect while both attention allocation and response factors were potentially operational in the 2-Response condition. The results obtained revealed that both attention allocation and response factors made significant contributions to the spatial precue effect when the reaction stimuli were delivered parafoveally; however, only response factors contributed to this effect when the imperative stimuli were presented within the foveal area. It appears that either subjects do not allocate attention to precued locations when the reaction stimuli require only “luminance detection” and when they are presented foveally or that if they do so, RT is not altered by the presence or absence of attention.

Activation-interference association for finger responses in choice reaction time tasks

Abstract The two experiments conducted basically used equi-probable, choice reaction time (RT) tasks with two executable responses. Overall, Response Probability (0.5, 0.9), Hand Condition (within, between) and Trial-Type (single-response, dual-response) served as main factors. The results obtained supported Kornblums (1965) claim that response interference consumes a measurable portion of the RT interval on single-response trials, and, moreover, pointed to the existence of a direct association between activation and interference degrees. Two important consequences attendant to the existence of an activation-interference relationship were discussed; namely, that the influence of probability upon RT should not be viewed solely in ‘non-interactive’ terms (e.g., Information Theory) and that since both activation and interference levels increase concurrently, one must determine which of these two, opposing forces dominates the other (‘Dominance Issue’) to control ordinal changes in RT(single-response). The answer determines how RT(single-response) should be interpreted.

Simulation study of a decision-making model of squash competition, phase one: The analysis of the protocol

Abstract This study aims at specifying some of the cognitive processes underlying decision-making in squash competition. More specifically, the study focuses on the strategy of the defending player (D) when chosing among three categories of preparation (total preparation for one particular event, partial preparation in favor of one event and absence of biased preparation). D is viewed as an information processing system (IPS) placed in a problem-solving situation, the problem being what decision to reach. The results obtained in a preceding investigation about the nature of the information processed by a player to anticipate and prepare for the opponents shot in a real game setting, are used to determine a typical protocol of the behavior of D. The analysis of this protocol allows one to formally define (in Backus-Normal-Form) the problem space of D which is also Ds internal representation of the task environment. From the problem space are derived (1) the problem behavior graph depicting the search of D through his problem space for a solution, and (2) the production system (a set of conditional statements, each expressing what to do under specific conditions) defining the logic of the search. The results of this first phase of the simulation study of a decision-making model of squash competition show that the cognitive strategy of D is based upon the use of a specific preformed algorithm. This algorithm could be stored in some long-term memory and activated by the current state of information in short-term memory. Finally, the proposed model also leads to the suggestion that the cognitive strategy of the performer may be influenced by a variety of factors such as the experience of the player, the time pressure, the expectancies, the performers confidence in his predictions and the mistakes caused by incorrect predictions.

Simulation study of a decision-making model of squash competition, phase two: Testing the model through the use of computer simulation

Abstract This study aims at verifying the inner validity and logic of a squash competition decision-making model through the use of computer simulation. The model defines the cognitive-decisional strategy of the defending player (D) when selecting a motor reaction in response to his opponents shot. Computer simulation of the model was carried out on a PDP-10 computer using a recent version of UCI-LISP. Protocol analysis data pertaining to the nature of the information D processes when awaiting the attacking players shot were fed into the simulation program in order to examine the extent to which the model can reproduce decisions reached in various defensive contexts. Simulation results reveal that the proposed model can account for a substantial part of the variation in the speed and accuracy of Ds motor reaction in real sport situations. Several factors like time pressure, expectancies, uncertainty, recency and familiarity of the relationship between signal and response appear to affect Ds motor response via the cognitive-decisional strategy employed by the defending player. Particular discrepancies observed between simulation results and decisions reached by expert players in specific defensive situations nevertheless indicate that the decision rule utilized within the present model needs to be refined. In this regard, several issues are discussed and suggestions for further simulation studies are put forward in order to account more precisely for the various features characterizing the defensive players motor reaction in real sporting context.

Are movements/proprioception effective time-keeping mediators? The input hypothesis re-visited

Abstract Based upon the experimental literature surveyed, and given that time-keeping accuracy (i.e., constant error, absolute error, beneficial anticipation) is the appropriate performance dimension to consider, there appears to be virtually no support for the speculation that proprioception serves as an effective mediator for conscious time-keeping judgements. For the most part, individuals afforded movements during the interval to be timed did not perform significantly more precisely than did those people deprived of such time-filling movements, nor did they consistently estimate time with significantly less variability. On this basis, and because other predictions of the Input Hypothesis examined herein (left/right hand covariance, practice by movement group interaction and effect of different levels of proprioception) were not experimentally supported, the validity of the Input Hypothesis was rejected.

Existence of non-selective restricted priming: Confirmatory evidence

Abstract The object of this study was to verify if non-selective restricted (NSR) priming could be generated independently of the non-selective (NS) priming which has been found to be sensitive to changes in temporal uncertainty. The study also aimed at specifying some of NSR primings properties. Changes in NSR priming were promoted by varying subjects confidence in the experimenters prediction that the required response would be part of a predicted subset of four equiprobable responses. Changes in NS priming were induced by varying foreperiod duration. In addition, on 1/14 of the trials, a different response was called for by a probe stimulus. The time needed to react to this stimulus represented the level of preparation associated with the ‘dormant’ responses of the subjects repertoire. The results showed that changes in NSR and NS priming can be generated independently, showing that NSR exists as a unique and distinct preparatory process. The results also showed that changes in either NSR or NS priming did not affect the readiness of the ‘dormant’ response. This confirmed the hypothesized property of NSR of being restricted but did not support the hypothesis that, contrary to NSR priming, changes in NS priming affect all responses of the subjects repertoire.