Claudia N. Martini

PKA-dependent and independent cAMP signaling in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts differentiation

Adipogenesis is stimulated in 3T3-L1 fibroblast by a combination of insulin, dexamethasone, and methylisobutylxanthine (MIX). Mitotic clonal expansion (MCE) precedes differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblast to adipocytes. MIX increases cAMP content, which is the activator of protein kinase A (PKA). However, PKA-independent cAMP signaling has also been described. In this paper, it was found that H89, an inhibitor of PKA, was able to block MCE but not differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblast. Consistently, MCE did not occur in the absence of MIX in the differentiation mixture but was recovered by overexpression of a catalytic subunit of PKA. In addition, the transfection of 3T3-L1 fibroblast with a dominant-negative mutant of PKA inhibited MCE. On the other hand, differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblast to adipocytes did not occur when MIX was not present in the differentiation mixture and it could not be recovered by overexpression of a catalytic subunit of PKA. Differentiation was restored by addition of either dibutyryl-cAMP (db-cAMP) or 8 CPT-2 Me-cAMP. The latter activates cAMP-EPAC but not PKA signaling. These results indicate that cAMP-PKA-independent signaling, is required for 3T3-L1 fibroblasts differentiation to adipocytes and MIX signaling through cAMP-PKA is necessary for MCE, although MCE is not essential for adipogenesis.

A commercial formulation of glyphosate inhibits proliferation and differentiation to adipocytes and induces apoptosis in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts.

Glyphosate-based herbicides are extensively used for weed control all over the world. Therefore, it is important to investigate the putative toxic effects of these formulations which include not only glyphosate itself but also surfactants that may also be toxic. 3T3-L1 fibroblasts are a useful tool to study adipocyte differentiation, this cell line can be induced to differentiate by addition of a differentiation mixture containing insulin, dexamethasone and 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine. We used this cell line to investigate the effect of a commercial formulation of glyphosate (GF) on proliferation, survival and differentiation. It was found that treatment of exponentially growing cells with GF for 48h inhibited proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, treatment with GF dilution 1:2000 during 24 or 48h inhibited proliferation and increased cell death, as evaluated by trypan blue-exclusion, in a time-dependent manner. We showed that treatment of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts with GF increased caspase-3 like activity and annexin-V positive cells as evaluated by flow cytometric analysis, which are both indicative of induction of apoptosis. It was also found that after the removal of GF, remaining cells were able to restore proliferation. On the other hand, GF treatment severely inhibited the differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts to adipocytes. According to our results, a glyphosate-based herbicide inhibits proliferation and differentiation in this mammalian cell line and induces apoptosis suggesting GF-mediated cellular damage. Thus, GF is a potential risk factor for human health and the environment.

Effect of hexavalent chromium on proliferation and differentiation to adipocytes of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts

Heavy metals contamination has become an important risk factor for public health and the environment. Chromium is a frequent industrial contaminant and is also used in orthopaedic joint replacements made from cobalt-chromium-alloy. Since hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) was reported as genotoxic and carcinogenic in different mammals, to further evaluate its cytotoxicity, we investigated the effect of this heavy metal in the proliferation and differentiation to adipocytes of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts. These cells, after the addition of a mixture containing insulin, dexamethasone and methylisobutylxanthine, first proliferate, a process known as mitotic clonal expansion (MCE), and then differentiate to adipocytes. In this differentiation process a key transcription factor is induced: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma). We found that treatment of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts with potassium chromate inhibited proliferation in exponentially growing cells and MCE as well as differentiation. A decrease in PPAR gamma content, evaluated by western blot and immunofluorescence, was found in cells differentiated in the presence of chromium. On the other hand, after inhibition of differentiation with chromium, when the metal was removed, differentiation was recovered, which indicates that this may be a reversible effect. We also found an increase in the number of micronucleated cells after treatment with Cr(VI) which is associated with genotoxic effects. According to our results, Cr(VI) is able to inhibit proliferation and differentiation to adipocytes of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and to increase micronucleated cells, which are all indicative of alterations in cellular physiology and therefore, contributes to further elucidate the cytotoxic effects of this heavy metal.

Heme availability affects corticosterone and aldosterone biosynthesis in rat adrenal

In this paper, we studied the effect of heme availability on corticosterone and aldosterone synthesis in rat adrenal. We found that hemin stimulated corticosterone and aldosterone production in adrenal homogenates in a dose-dependent fashion. Hemin administration to rats also provoked an increase in both corticosterone and aldosterone content in adrenal. 3,5-Diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydro-2,4,6-trimethylpyridine (DDC), an inhibitor of liver ferrochelatase activity, was able to inhibit this enzyme in rat adrenal. This resulted in an impairment of heme concentration and consequently adrenal ALA-synthase and porphyrin content were increased. Thus, it was proven that DDC inhibits heme biosynthesis in adrenal as it does in liver. In vivo experiments with rats showed that DDC was able to partially blocked ACTH-mediated corticosterone and aldosterone production while hemin administration was able to partially restore it. These data indicate that heme availability affects steroid biosynthesis in rat adrenal.

Glyphosate Inhibits PPAR Gamma Induction and Differentiation of Preadipocytes and is able to Induce Oxidative Stress.

Glyphosate‐based herbicides (GF) are extensively used for weed control. Thus, it is important to investigate their putative toxic effects. We have reported that GF at subagriculture concentrations inhibits proliferation and differentiation to adipocytes of 3T3‐L1 fibroblasts. In this investigation, we evaluated the effect of GF on genes upregulated during adipogenesis. GF was able to inhibit the induction of PPAR gamma, the master gene in adipogenesis but not C/EBP beta, which precedes PPAR gamma activation. GF also inhibited differentiation and proliferation of another model of preadipocyte: mouse embryonic fibroblasts. In exponentially growing 3T3‐L1 cells, GF increased lipid peroxidation and the activity of the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase. We also found that proliferation was inhibited with lower concentrations of GF when time of exposure was extended. Thus, GF was able to inhibit proliferation and differentiation of preadipocytes and to induce oxidative stress, which is indicative of its ability to alter cellular physiology.

Exchange protein activated by cyclic AMP is involved in the regulation of adipogenic genes during 3T3‐L1 fibroblasts differentiation

Adipogenesis is stimulated in 3T3‐L1 fibroblasts by a combination of insulin, dexamethasone and isobutylmethylxanthine, IBMX, (I+D+M). Two transcription factors are important for the acquisition of the adipocyte phenotype, C/EBP beta (CCAT enhancer‐binding protein beta) and PPAR gamma (peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor gamma). IBMX increases cAMP content, which can activate protein kinase A (PKA) and/or EPAC (exchange protein activated by cAMP). To investigate the importance of IBMX in the differentiation mixture, we first evaluated the effect of the addition of IBMX on the increase of C/EBP beta and PPAR gamma and found an enhancement of the amount of both proteins. IBMX addition (I+D+M) or its replacement with a cAMP analogue, dibutyryl‐cAMP or 8‐(4‐chlorophenylthio)‐2‐O′‐methyl‐cAMP (8CPT‐2‐Me‐cAMP), the latter activates EPAC and not PKA, remarkably increased PPAR gamma mRNA. However, neither I+D nor any of the inducers alone, increased PPAR gamma mRNA to a similar extent, suggesting the importance of the presence of both IBMX and I+D. It was also found that the addition of IBMX or 8CPT‐2‐Me‐cAMP was able to increase the content of C/EBP beta with respect to I+D. In agreement with these findings, a microarray analysis showed that the presence of either 8CPT‐2‐Me‐cAMP or IBMX in the differentiation mixture was able to upregulate PPAR gamma and PPAR gamma‐activated genes as well as other genes involved in lipid metabolism. Our results prove the involvement of IBMX‐cAMP‐EPAC in the regulation of adipogenic genes during differentiation of 3T3‐L1 fibroblasts and therfore contributes to elucidate the role of cyclic AMP in this process.

N-acetylcysteine inhibits lipid accumulation in mouse embryonic adipocytes.

Oxidative stress plays critical roles in the pathogenesis of diabetes, hypertension, and atherosclerosis; some authors reported that fat accumulation correlates to systemic oxidative stress in human and mice, but cellular redox environment effect on lipid accumulation is still unclear. In our laboratory we used mouse embryonic fibroblasts (undifferentiated cells: CC), which are capable of differentiating into mature adipocytes (differentiated cells: DC) and accumulate lipids, as obesity model. Here we analyzed the role of the well-known antioxidant and glutathione precursor N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in cellular MAPK modulation and lipid accumulation. We evaluated the effect of NAC on the adipogenic differentiation pathway using different doses: 0.01, 0.1, 1 and 5 mM; no toxic doses in these cells. A dose of 5 mM NAC [DCN-5] provoked a significant decrease in triglyceride accumulation (72±10 [DCN-5] vs 169±15 [DC], p<0.01), as well in Oil Red O stained neutral lipid content (120±2 [DCN-5] vs 139±12 [DC], p<0.01). Molecular mechanisms responsible for adipogenic differentiation involve increase of the expression of phosphoERK½ and phosphoJNK, 5 mM NAC treatment inhibited both pERK½ and pJNK protein levels. We also evaluated the mitotic clonal expansion (MCE) which takes place during adipogenesis and observed an increase in DC at a rate of 1.5 cells number compared to CC at day 2, whereas the highest doses of NAC significantly inhibited MCE. Our results suggest that NAC inhibits lipid accumulation and the MAPK phosphorylation in mouse embryonic fibroblasts during adipogenic differentiation and further contribute to probe the importance of cellular redox environment in adipogenesis.

ACTH stimulates the release of alkaline phosphatase through Gi-mediated activation of a phospholipase C and the release of inositolphosphoglycan

We have previously reported that ACTH activates a phospholipase C that hydrolyzes glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI), which would release inositolphosphoglycan (IPG) to the extracellular medium, and that an IPG purified from Trypanosoma cruzi is able to inhibit ACTH-mediated steroid production in adrenocortical cells. In the present paper, it was found that anti-inositolphosphoglycan antibodies (anti-CRD) increased ACTH-mediated corticosterone production, which indicates that an endogenous IPG is a physiological inhibitor of ACTH response. On the other hand, we investigated the release to the extracellular medium of the GPI-anchored enzyme, alkaline phosphatase, by ACTH. We found that: (a) the released enzyme appeared in the aqueous phase after Triton X-114 partitioning, consistent with loss of the GPI, (b) the phospholipase C inhibitor, U73122, impaired the release of the enzyme by the hormone and (c) two inhibitors of IPG uptake, inositol 2-monophosphate and 2 M NaCl, increased the amount of alkaline phosphatase in the extracellular medium. These results suggest that ACTH releases alkaline phosphatase by activation of a phospholipase C. Dibutyryladenosine-3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (db-cAMP) was able to increase the release of alkaline phosphatase from adrenocortical cells and this effect was inhibited by U73122, suggesting that cAMP is involved in the activation of phospholipase C. In addition, it was found that a pertussis-toxin sensitive G-protein is required for ACTH- and db-cAMP-mediated release of alkaline phosphatase and that incorporation of anti-Gi antibodies in adrenocortical cells inhibited the release of alkaline phosphatase by ACTH. Our results suggest that ACTH increases the release of alkaline phosphatase by activation of a phospholipase C through cAMP and Gi which would contribute to produce IPG. It was also found that the two inhibitors of IPG uptake, inositol-2-monophosphate and 2 M NaCl, increased the amount of alkaline phosphatase in the extracellular medium of ACTH-treated cells more than in control cells, indicating that ACTH also stimulates the uptake of IPG. These data support a role of GPI and the involvement of Gi in ACTH action.

MCAM knockdown impairs PPARγ expression and 3T3-L1 fibroblasts differentiation to adipocytes

We investigated for the first time the expression of melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) and its involvement in the differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts to adipocytes. We found that MCAM mRNA increased subsequent to the activation of the master regulator of adipogenesis, PPARγ, and this increase was maintained in the mature adipocytes. On the other hand, MCAM knockdown impaired differentiation and induction of PPARγ as well as expression of genes activated by PPARγ. However, events that precede and are necessary for early PPARγ activation, such as C/EBPβ induction, β-catenin downregulation, and ERK activation, were not affected in the MCAM knockdown cells. In keeping with this, the increase in PPARγ mRNA that precedes MCAM induction was not altered in the knockdown cells. In conclusion, our findings suggest that MCAM is a gene upregulated and involved in maintaining PPARγ induction in the late but not in the early stages of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts adipogenesis.