Clayton A. Hartjen

Gender, Peers, and Delinquency: A Study of Boys and Girls in Rural France

Unlike most other European countries, no self-report research in France has been published, so aside from available data or ethnographic and interview studies, little is known about the delinquent behavior of French youth and practically nothing about young people in the French countryside. In the research reported here, the authors administered a self-reported delinquency questionnaire to a sample of 387 lycée and collège students in the Poitou-Charentes region of central France. Employing indices used in the National Youth Survey, the authors sought to test the extent to which measures of social control and learning/differential association theories could be generalized to, and similarly help explain, the delinquency of boys and girls in rural France. Of the two theories investigated, social control measures either did not form reliable scales or were not significantly related to various offense scales, although measures of learning/differential association theory were strongly related to delinquency and about equally so for both boys and girls. The implications and limitations of the research are discussed.

EXPLORING THE ETIOLOGY OF DELINQUENCY ACROSS COUNTRY AND GENDER

ABSTRACT Dimensions employed by Elliott et al. (1985) to test strain, control, and social learning theory are employed in a cross-national/gender analysis of their relative ability to explain the delinquent behavior of American and Indian high-school boys and girls. Significant differences across countries and genders are found in self-reported delinquency rates as well as most of the variables used to measure theoretical dimensions. As found generally, of the three theories social learning appears to be the only argument consistently related to delinquency across both countries and genders, although the relative explanatory ability of these variables varies by country, but not gender. The implications of these findings for explaining the etiology of delinquent behavior around the world as well as casting light on understanding world-wide variations in offense rates are discussed.

The criminality of women and girls in India

Sharing a legal status equal to that of males, females in India are by no means socially and economically equal, nor do they exhibit official and self‐reported crime rates any where near those of men and boys. As commonly found around the world, a distinct gender‐gap in arrests exists in India with overall male:female ratios of around 20:1. While commonly found in other third world countries, this ratio is about four times greater than occurs between males and females in economically developed countries. Self‐report data narrows this gender‐gap considerably. But, the remarkable thing about the criminality of women and girls in India is that their is so little of it. Due to the lack of basic data, explaining female crime in India remains a task yet to be undertaken. However, there is reason to believe that theoretical concepts of etiology developed in Western criminology may apply to India also. As such, the relatively minuscule offense rates for Indian females may reflect how their suppressed social posit...

Delinquency, Development, and Social Integration in India

This paper attempts to explain findings from a study of juvenile delinquency carried out by myself and S. Priyadarsini in India during 1978. In contrast to countries like the United States, delinquency in India is not considered to be a major problem by adults or correctional officials, and delinquency rates have remained low. Several socio-economic features of Indian society, such as the interpersonal ties of family and the social requirements of an agrarian-scarcity economy, ensure that young people are integrated into the dominant social system and deter the development of an adolescent subculture separate from adult society. As integral elements of the socio-economic structure of the country, Indian youth are neither oriented to normative violations nor are they perceived by adults as “outsiders” in need of formal control.

Legal Change and Juvenile Justice in India

In 1986 Indias parliament passed the Juvenile Justice Act 1986, nationalizing and standardizing juvenile justice throughout India. This law, which departs radically from former practices, is described in the present article, and data regarding arrests and dispositions before and after passage of the law are examined to assess what, if any, impact this major legal change might have on formal responses to youthful offenders. The reasons that this legislation may have been enacted at this time, and the changes taking place in Indian society that this change in law might suggest, are also discussed.

Delinquency in Comparative Perspective: India

Similar in many respects to laws in other countries, the Indian national delinquency code of 1986 defines a “delinquent” as a “juvenile” who commits an “offense.” Distinguishing delinquents from neglected youths, this law mandates a rehabilitative, social welfare, rather than a punitive approach be taken toward young offenders. Official delinquency rates have not shown dramatic increases through the 1980s and remain extremely low compared to other countries. Self-report data, however, indicates that at least for mild offenses, delinquent behavior is widespread among Indian youth. While somewhat less frequent among Indian youths compared to those in economically developed societies, offense patterns and distributions among Indian juveniles are similar to those found in most other countries. Existing research does little to cast light on the causal forces responsible for this behavior in India, although some data suggests that bond and learning theories may apply. Moreover, socioeconomic conditions relating...

Abandoned and Street Children

In virtually every corner of the globe one can find children who have been abandoned or, for various reasons, have made the street their home. Street children are by no means all alike, and counting them worldwide remains exceedingly difficult. In some societies they are highly visible and numerous. But in others they are largely hidden from public view and remain largely anonymous. The central topic of this discussion is the question: “Why are they there?” The varieties of young people commonly found on the streets of the world are described, statistical estimates of their numbers provided, and an inside look at the real children behind these numbers is offered. Focus is on the diverse factors and processes worldwide that forced these children to make the street their abode and the survival strategies they have adapted. The unique social networks these children have devised in various societies to help them survive are analyzed. Being abandoned, or lacking the protection of family and adults, street children everywhere are subjected to numerous and unrelenting victimizations from authorities, exploitative employers, sundry adults, and fellow street children often making their lives short and miserable. Instances of these victimizations are described in depth. Few societies have systematic and organized programs to reduce their numbers or help them, especially in those countries where the need is greatest. Barriers to meaningfully eradicating the problem worldwide are addressed. Programs in some countries that show some promise in alleviating the misery of homeless children are described.

Sexual and Commercial Trafficking of Children

Universally recognized as a form of modern slavery, each year millions of human beings are taken from their homes to be economically exploited in distant lands. An unknown portion of these victims are children, often of quite tender age. Estimates on how many such children are to be found throughout the world are presented along with a discussion of the underlying causes of this kind of victimization. In some cases, children are trafficked as a cheap source of exploitable labor. But most often trafficked children are forced into prostitution, kept in bondage to satisfy the lust of their pedophile patrons and the greed of their “traffickers/owners.” Focus is directed to the victims as well as the victimizers involved in the worldwide trafficking business. The ways victimizers recruit and control their victims are described. All trafficked children suffer many kinds of abuse while being trafficked and during their period of forced labor. Most are scarred for life as a result. Specific attention is given to the health hazards trafficked children experience, especially those forced into prostitution. Most of these children never see their homes again, some dying as a consequence of their enslavement. National and international laws, and their un-enforcement, governing the trafficking of human beings are described. Considerable attention is given to various international and local efforts that aim at preventing the trafficking of children and helping those who have been victimized.

Denial of Education

International and national laws guarantee that every child has the right to at least a basic education. Besides developing individuals’ sense of efficacy, an educated populace makes for successful democracies. Yet, this universal right is denied millions of children throughout the world due to religious extremism, cultural tradition, government indifference, and poverty, among other things. In addition, even in wealthy countries educational opportunities for the poor are often limited. Because of the efforts of UNICEF and various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in recent decades progress has been made in providing many of the world’s children with at least a primary school education. But much, yet, needs to be done. Data on opportunities for and achievements in providing education in countries throughout the world are presented. Some of the major barriers to achieving universal access to education are discussed as are major issues associated with doing so. Special attention is devoted to the education of girls, who are still often unable to attend school or, if so attending, progress much beyond the primary level. Universal laws mandating that countries provide educational opportunities for all are described. Included are a number of local and international initiatives designed to compel governments to live up to these mandates.

Child Pornography and Pedophelia

Both by international and national laws aim to shield and protect children everywhere from premature sex. However, some argue that historically and all over the globe children have been objects of sexual fantasy and exploitation. The idea that children should be protected from sex – either being exposed to or involved in it – is a relatively recent development in human history. As a consequence considerable concern is expressed by people over the prospect that children might be contaminated by viewing sexually explicit material or, worse yet, being engaged in sexual acts, either with other children or adults. The fears and efforts against precocious sex have been greatly confounded by the advent of the internet resulting in a booming international pornography industry and the use of children in pornographic productions. Data on child pornography throughout the world is assessed and the problems encountered in accurately reporting of the numbers of children worldwide who have been sexually victimized in some way or another are discussed. Discussion is also devoted to the characteristics and motivations of the people who victimize child and the children subjected to this behavior. International and national laws directed to preventing child sexual exploitation are presented and their usefulness assessed. A variety of extra-legal approaches to protecting children and dealing with child sex-offenders are explored while the prospects of meaningfully addressing this problem are assessed.