Clayton C. Kingdon

Spectroscopic determination of leaf morphological and biochemical traits for northern temperate and boreal tree species

The morphological and biochemical properties of plant canopies are strong predictors of photosynthetic capacity and nutrient cycling. Remote sensing research at the leaf and canopy scales has demonstrated the ability to characterize the biochemical status of vegetation canopies using reflectance spectroscopy, including at the leaf level and canopy level from air- and spaceborne imaging spectrometers. We developed a set of accurate and precise spectroscopic calibrations for the determination of leaf chemistry (contents of nitrogen, carbon, and fiber constituents), morphology (leaf mass per area, Marea), and isotopic composition (δ15N) of temperate and boreal tree species using spectra of dried and ground leaf material. The data set consisted of leaves from both broadleaf and needle-leaf conifer species and displayed a wide range in values, determined with standard analytical approaches: 0.7–4.4% for nitrogen (Nmass), 42–54% for carbon (Cmass), 17–58% for fiber (acid-digestible fiber, ADF), 7–44% for lignin (acid-digestible lignin, ADL), 3–31% for cellulose, 17–265 g/m2 for Marea, and −9.4‰ to 0.8‰ for δ15N. The calibrations were developed using a partial least-squares regression (PLSR) modeling approach combined with a novel uncertainty analysis. Our PLSR models yielded model calibration (independent validation shown in parentheses) R2 and the root mean square error (RMSE) values, respectively, of 0.98 (0.97) and 0.10% (0.13%) for Nmass, R2 = 0.77 (0.73) and RMSE = 0.88% (0.95%) for Cmass, R2 = 0.89 (0.84) and RMSE = 2.8% (3.4%) for ADF, R2 = 0.77 (0.69) and RMSE = 2.4% (3.9%) for ADL, R2 = 0.77 (0.72) and RMSE = 1.4% (1.9%) for leaf cellulose, R2 = 0.62 (0.60) and RMSE = 0.91‰ (1.5‰) for δ15N, and R2 = 0.88 (0.87) with RMSE = 17.2 g/m2 (22.8 g/m2) for Marea. This study demonstrates the potential for rapid and accurate estimation of key foliar traits of forest canopies that are important for ecological research and modeling activities, with a single calibration equation valid over a wide range of northern temperate and boreal species and leaf physiognomies. The results provide the basis to characterize important variability between and within species, and across ecological gradients using a rapid, cost-effective, easily replicated method.

Imaging spectroscopy algorithms for mapping canopy foliar chemical and morphological traits and their uncertainties

A major goal of remote sensing is the development of generalizable algorithms to repeatedly and accurately map ecosystem properties across space and time. Imaging spectroscopy has great potential to map vegetation traits that cannot be retrieved from broadband spectral data, but rarely have such methods been tested across broad regions. Here we illustrate a general approach for estimating key foliar chemical and morphological traits through space and time using NASAs Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS-Classic). We apply partial least squares regression (PLSR) to data from 237 field plots within 51 images acquired between 2008 and 2011. Using a series of 500 randomized 50/50 subsets of the original data, we generated spatially explicit maps of seven traits (leaf mass per area (M(area)), percentage nitrogen, carbon, fiber, lignin, and cellulose, and isotopic nitrogen concentration, δ15N) as well as pixel-wise uncertainties in their estimates based on error propagation in the analytical methods. Both M(area) and %N PLSR models had a R2 > 0.85. Root mean square errors (RMSEs) for both variables were less than 9% of the range of data. Fiber and lignin were predicted with R2 > 0.65 and carbon and cellulose with R2 > 0.45. Although R2 of %C and cellulose were lower than M(area) and %N, the measured variability of these constituents (especially %C) was also lower, and their RMSE values were beneath 12% of the range in overall variability. Model performance for δ15N was the lowest (R2 = 0.48, RMSE = 0.95 per thousand), but within 15% of the observed range. The resulting maps of chemical and morphological traits, together with their overall uncertainties, represent a first-of-its-kind approach for examining the spatiotemporal patterns of forest functioning and nutrient cycling across a broad range of temperate and sub-boreal ecosystems. These results offer an alternative to categorical maps of functional or physiognomic types by providing non-discrete maps (i.e., on a continuum) of traits that define those functional types. A key contribution of this work is the ability to assign retrieval uncertainties by pixel, a requirement to enable assimilation of these data products into ecosystem modeling frameworks to constrain carbon and nutrient cycling projections.

Imaging spectroscopy links aspen genotype with below-ground processes at landscape scales

Fine-scale biodiversity is increasingly recognized as important to ecosystem-level processes. Remote sensing technologies have great potential to estimate both biodiversity and ecosystem function over large spatial scales. Here, we demonstrate the capacity of imaging spectroscopy to discriminate among genotypes of Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen), one of the most genetically diverse and widespread forest species in North America. We combine imaging spectroscopy (AVIRIS) data with genetic, phytochemical, microbial and biogeochemical data to determine how intraspecific plant genetic variation influences below-ground processes at landscape scales. We demonstrate that both canopy chemistry and below-ground processes vary over large spatial scales (continental) according to aspen genotype. Imaging spectrometer data distinguish aspen genotypes through variation in canopy spectral signature. In addition, foliar spectral variation correlates well with variation in canopy chemistry, especially condensed tannins. Variation in aspen canopy chemistry, in turn, is correlated with variation in below-ground processes. Variation in spectra also correlates well with variation in soil traits. These findings indicate that forest tree species can create spatial mosaics of ecosystem functioning across large spatial scales and that these patterns can be quantified via remote sensing techniques. Moreover, they demonstrate the utility of using optical properties as proxies for fine-scale measurements of biodiversity over large spatial scales.

Using foliar spectral properties to assess the effects of drought on plant water potential

Drought frequency is predicted to increase in future environments. Leaf water potential (ΨLW) is commonly used to evaluate plant water status, but traditional measurements can be logistically difficult and require destructive sampling. We used reflectance spectroscopy to characterize variation in ΨLW of Quercus oleoides Schltdl. & Cham. under differential water availability and tested the ability to predict pre-dawn ΨLW (PDΨLW) using spectral data collected hours after pressure chamber measurements on dark-acclimated leaves. ΨLW was measured with a Scholander pressure chamber. Leaf reflectance was collected at one or both of two time points: immediately (ΨLW) and ~5 h after pressure chamber measurements (PDΨLW). Predictive models were constructed using partial least-squares regression. Model performance was evaluated using coefficient of determination (R2), root-mean-square error (RMSE), bias, and the percent RMSE of the data range (%RMSE). ΨLW and PDΨLW were well predicted using spectroscopic models and successfully estimated a wide variation in ΨLW (light- or dark-acclimated leaves) as well as PDΨLW (dark-acclimated leaves only). Mean ΨLWR2, RMSE and bias values were 0.65, 0.51 MPa and 0.09, respectively, with a %RMSE between 8% and 20%, while mean PDΨLWR2, RMSE and bias values were 0.60, 0.44 MPa and 0.01, respectively, with a %RMSE between 9% and 20%. Estimates of PDΨLW produced similar statistical outcomes when analyzing treatment effects on PDΨLW as those found using reference pressure chamber measurements. These findings highlight a promising approach to evaluate plant responses to environmental change by providing rapid measurements that can be used to estimate plant water status as well as demonstrating that spectroscopic measurements can be used as a surrogate for standard, reference measurements in a statistical framework.