Clemens B. A. Wollny

Mitochondrial DNA D‐loop sequences suggest a Southeast Asian and Indian origin of Zimbabwean village chickens

This study sought to assess mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diversity and phylogeographic structure of chickens from five agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe. Furthermore, chickens from Zimbabwe were compared with populations from other geographical regions (Malawi, Sudan and Germany) and other management systems (broiler and layer purebred lines). Finally, haplotypes of these animals were aligned to chicken sequences, taken from GenBank, that reflected populations of presumed centres of domestication. A 455-bp fragment of the mtDNA D-loop region was sequenced in 283 chickens of 14 populations. Thirty-two variable sites that defined 34 haplotypes were observed. In Zimbabwean chickens, diversity within ecotypes accounted for 96.8% of the variation, indicating little differentiation between ecotypes. The 34 haplotypes clustered into three clades that corresponded to (i) Zimbabwean and Malawian chickens, (ii) broiler and layer purebred lines and Northwest European chickens, and (iii) a mixture of chickens from Zimbabwe, Sudan, Northwest Europe and the purebred lines. Diversity among clades explained more than 80% of the total variation. Results indicated the existence of two distinct maternal lineages evenly distributed among the five Zimbabwean chicken ecotypes. For one of these lineages, chickens from Zimbabwe and Malawi shared major haplotypes with chicken populations that have a Southeast Asian background. The second maternal lineage, probably from the Indian subcontinent, was common to the five Zimbabwean chicken ecotypes, Sudanese and Northwest European chickens as well as purebred broiler and layer chicken lines. A third maternal lineage excluded Zimbabwean and other African chickens and clustered with haplotypes presumably originating from South China.

The need to conserve farm animal genetic resources in Africa: should policy makers be concerned?

Abstract This paper outlines key factors contributing to the erosion of animal genetic resources and discusses strategic options for policy makers. The ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993 represents an international consensus to conserve biodiversity including that of farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR). In Africa, conservation of agricultural biodiversity is inbuilt into the low input–low output production strategies of smallholder farming systems. These systems are often associated with poverty in rural areas and numerous development projects have thus sought to alleviate such poverty by promoting crossbreeding or modern reproductive technologies. However, uncontrolled crossbreeding has been and remains a threat to the conservation of local farm animal populations. Objectives for the conservation of a local farm animal population and opportunities to utilise its diversity to meet present and future market demands, to serve as an insurance against environmental changes such as changes in production, socio-economic, and cultural conditions can be identified for research and development. To improve food security and to alleviate poverty through the conservation of FAnGR in Africa, utilisation of local farm animal populations depends on the ability of communities to decide on and implement appropriate breeding strategies. It is for this reason that enabling policies are required.

Local chicken production system in Malawi: Household flock structure, dynamics, management and health

Household flocks of scavenging chickens were monitored from August 2002 to August 2003 in 27 villages in Lilongwe, Malawi. The objective was to evaluate the local chicken production system by investigating flock structure, utilization, management and constraints. Farmers and researchers jointly obtained data on household flocks. Mean flock size was 12.9, with a range of 1–61 chickens. The flock dynamics of chickens over 8 weeks old constituted 91% migrating out of flocks and 9% into the flocks. Primary functions based on flock dynamics were, in order of importance, household consumption, participation in socio-cultural ceremonies, selling, exchanging breeding stock and gifts. Of the flock exits, 43.9% were due to losses from diseases, predation and theft. Most flocks (85%) were housed in human dwelling units. Scavenging was the main source of feed. The majority (77.6%) of farmers supplemented their chickens erratically with energy-rich feeds, mostly maize bran. Most supplementation took place during the cold-dry season. Village chicken production offers diverse functional outputs but faces animal health (diseases, parasites, predation) and management (feeding) constraints, which require an integrated intervention approach at community and household level.

Smallholders’ perceptions of goat farming in southern Benin and opportunities for improvement

To be successful, initiatives to improve smallholder’s goat production should directly address the needs and objectives of the keepers while promoting rational use of local genetic resources. This paper identifies the objectives, constraints and needs of goat farmers in southern Benin and discusses their relevance to the development of improvement programmes. Between November and December 2005, structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and participant observation were used to collect information from 38 goat farmers in two selected locations. Goats were kept mainly for sale whenever cash was needed. Traits related to reproduction, to behaviour, to health and to meat production were considered equally important and were ranked very highly by goat keepers. Increased net income per flock through increased number of marketable animals is the derived breeding objective from the trait analysis. Disease outbreaks resulting in high mortality, poor housing, and feed shortages were, in descending order, the most important problems. It was concluded that the development of initiatives to improve management practices is an overriding priority. It will lead to increases in productivity in the short term and foster farmers’ participation in the development of long-term improvement strategies, which should include selection and controlled mating.

Choice of breeding stock, preference of production traits and culling criteria of village chickens among Zimbabwe agro-ecological zones

Free ranging chickens reared by smallholder farmers represent genetic diversity suited for particular environments and shaped by the socio-economic and cultural values of the farming systems. This study sought to investigate the existence of chicken strains and evaluate the breeding goals and strategies used by village chicken farmers in Zimbabwe. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 97, 56, 70, 104 and 37 households randomly selected from five agro-ecological-zones I-V, respectively. Fifteen chicken strains mostly defined by morphological traits were reported in the five eco-zones. Production criteria such as body size, and fertility were highly ranked (ranging from 1.3 – 2.6) by farmers across all the eco-zones, while cultural traits were the least preferred production traits. As a common breeding practice, farmers chose the type of hens and cocks to retain for breeding purposes and these randomly mixed and mated with others from community flocks. Chicken body size was ranked the major determinant in choosing breeding animals followed by mothering ability, and fertility. More households culled chickens associated with poor reproductive performance, poor growth rates and those intolerant to disease pathogens. The focus on many negatively correlated production traits and the absence of farmer records compromises breeding strategies in these production systems.

The Need to Conserve Farm Animal Genetic Resources Through Community-Based Management in Africa: Should Policy Makers be Concerned?

This paper outlines some key factors contributing to the erosion of animal genetic resources and discusses strategic options for livestock sector policy makers to counter such erosion in their respective countries. The ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993 represents an international consensus to conserve biodiversity including that of farm animal and plant genetic resources, which are prerequisites for food security and the improvement of agricultural productivity. In Africa, conservation of agricultural biodiversity is inbuilt into the low input - low output production strategies of smallholder farming systems. These systems are often associated with poverty in rural areas and numerous development projects have thus sought to alleviate such poverty by promoting and subsidising crossbreeding or modern reproductive technologies. However, uncontrolled crossbreeding has been and remains a serious threat to the conservation of local farm animal populations. The primary policy goal for conservation of biodiversity should focus on the diversity between and within indigenous populations of farm animals. This includes, for example, the close monitoring of crossbreeding activities with exotic breeds. The genetic and phenotypic characterisation of local breeds is a prerequisite for this purpose. Economic valuation of biodiversity in general, of breeds within given production systems and an analysis of the social welfare implications of farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) diversity conservation although relatively complex to carry out are also important for informed policy making. Despite the difficulties involved, objectives for the conservation of a local farm animal population and opportunities to utilise its diversity to meet present and future market demands, to serve as an insurance against environmental changes such as changes in production, socio-economic, historic and cultural conditions can be identified for research and development. To improve food security through the conservation of animal genetic resources in Africa, utilisation of local farm animal genetic resources depends on the ability of communities to decide on and implement appropriate breeding strategies. This cannot be realised without enabling policies. It is for this reason policy makers need to be concerned and should take action now.