Clifford K. Madsen

Demonstration and Recognition of High and Low Contrasts in Teacher Intensity.

The purpose of this study was to investigate teacher intensity, the global attributes of enthusiasm combined with an astute sense of timing in relation to classroom management and effective subject presentation and delivery. The authors also tried to ascertain whether high and low contrasts in teacher intensity could be taught to and then demonstrated by prospective music education student teachers (n = 20) and whether other music education majors untrained in the concept of intensity could recognize these contrasts (freshmen, n = 23; seniors, n = 22; and graduate students, n = 29). Results of the study indicated that intensity as a concept could be operationally defined, easily taught to prospective student teachers, ably demonstrated, and recognized with an extremely high degree of reliability across levels of sophistication within the music education major.

An Empirical Method for Measuring the Aesthetic Experience to Music

This study was designed to investigate empirically the “aesthetic experience” as individually defined by each subject. Subjects (N = 30) were faculty members and advanced graduate students at a large university school of music. Each subject listened to a 20-minute excerpt from Act I of Puccinis La Bohème and simultaneously manipulated the dial of a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to indicate perceived aesthetic level. The CRDI dial represented a negative/positive continuum along a 256-degree arc. Data collected were charted graphically to indicate levels of aesthetic response across time. Subjects completed a questionnaire designed to estimate frequency, duration, location, and magnitude of perceived aesthetic experiences and also indicated whether dial manipulation roughly corresponded to these experiences. Results indicated that there were different responses throughout the excerpt by all subjects. Heightened aesthetic responses were evident during certain parts of the excerpt. “Peak experiences” were relatively short (15 seconds or less in duration), preceded by a period of concentrated focus of attention, and generally followed by an “afterglow” ranging from 15 seconds to several minutes. All subjects reported having at least one aesthetic experience and also reported that movement of the CRDI dial roughly approximated this experience. “Aesthetic responses” for subjects seemed to cluster at many of the same places in the music, with one collective “peak” experience that was represented by the highest and lowest dial movements.

Support for Music Education: A Case Study of Issues Concerning Teacher Retention and Attrition

n the MENC-sponsored publication Vision 2020: The Housewright Svnrposiurn on Music Education (Midsen, 2000), several authors I wrore of problems confronting the future of music education. Changes in society, the structure of schools, the technological revolution, and the need for alternate ways to certify future music educators were all addressed. Yet, the very riltture of this changing society makes i t even more difficult to attract, develop, and-perhaps most important-sulaport and retain the young men and women who choose to enter the teaching profession. Obviously, if the amount twf financial remuneration is not paramourir, then the perceived ‘‘ good” that one iloes, perhaps combined with a general Iceling of support, seems to be an important factor. To state that the teacher shortage is a national crisis is not an exaggeration. The Uniled States Department of Education estimates that public schools must hirc as many as 2.7 million new teachers by2009. Although the problem is not a h ,acute in many suburban areas for regulirr classroom teachers, there is still high demand for specialized teachers in are,,is such as music. Furthermore,

Pitch and Tempo Discrimination in Recorded Orchestral Music among Musicians and Nonmusicians

Pitch and tempo discriminations within a musical context were investigated. Two hundred musicians and two hundred nonmusicians heard ten excerpts of relatively familiar orchestral music. Excerpts were presented in pairs in order to test the ability of subjects to discriminate how an altered excerpt differed in pitch and/or tempo from its unaltered presentation. Pitch levels and tempi of the excerpts independently or in combination increased, decreased, or remained constant compared to unaltered versions. Consistent with previous research, subjects identified correctly the examples of decreased pitch levels significantly more than pitch increase examples. It is surprising, however, that tempo increase examples, rather than tempo decreases, were identified more accurately. Additional study regarding listener discrimination of the elements of music and related preferences appears advisable, since these conceivably influence music instruction as well as the performance of music.

An Observation Procedure to Differentiate Teaching Experience and Expertise in Music Education

One hundred fifty music teachers and students were asked to simultaneously observe, analyze, and write extemporaneously about 20 videotaped excerpts of live music situations. Subjects were divided on the basis of their expertise and experience into five groups of 30 people each: freshmen, juniors, novices, experienced teachers, and experts. Responses were analyzed with differential points being given for accurate factual and inferential statements. Individual scores ranged from 17 to 205 points. Group means were widely differentiated and increased systematically as experience and expertise increased, and all differences between groups were significant except between the freshmen and juniors. A two-way ANOVA revealed that the difference in scores between experienced and expert teachers was not due solely to years of experience.

Modulated Frequency Discrimination in Relationship to Age and Musical Training

The purpose of the study was to test auditory discrimination of a modulated frequency. Two hundred subjects participated in the study representing second graders, fifth graders, eighth graders, eleventh graders, college non‐music majors (juniors), junior music majors, graduate music students, and School of Music faculty, respectively. The stimulus frequency was F♯ (369.99 Hz), which was presented to subjects individually in 15 randomized 30‐sec trials in three catagories: (1) without frequency alteration; (2) ascendingly; and (3) descendingly. Modulation for the ascending and descending tones was 2 cents/sec during the last 25 sec of the stimulus tone. Results of the study indicate that: (1) Auditory discrimination is partially a function of age as well as of music training; (2) comparatively, younger subjects respond to tonal stimuli “incorrectly and sharp” while older subjects evidence “better discrimination while demonstrating a proclivity toward flatness”; (3) perception of the modulated frequency is ...

Focus of Attention and Aesthetic Response

In the present study, focus of attention to musical elements was investigated in an attempt to ascertain which elements are perceived as most prominent in relation to aesthetic response as demonstrated in previous work. One hundred experienced musicians listened to the last 20 minutes of Act I of Puccinis La Bohème. Fifty musicians indicated via the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) which of five musical elements (Melody, Rhythm, Timbre, Dynamics, or Everything) commanded their attention as they listened throughout the excerpt. Additionally, another 50 subjects, divided into five groups of 10 subjects each, registered their degree of attention for each specific musical element; these subjects had only one element presented on the CRDI dial with instructions to register their degree of attention to this specific element throughout the selection. Results from those subjects who tracked all elements simultaneously indicated that the highest percentage of attention throughout the entire excerpt was registered for Dynamics, followed closely by the elements Everything, Melody, Rhythm, and Timbre. For those subjects who responded to only one element, the highest degree of attentiveness was registered for Melody, followed by the elements Dynamics and Everything. Timbre was next in degree-of-attentiveness rating, and rhythm was by far the lowest. The element Melody was most closely related to aesthetic responsiveness for this Puccini excerpt.

Modulated Beat Discrimination Among Musicians and Nonmusicians

The purpose of the study was to test auditory discrimination of modulated tempi. Two hundred musicians and nonmusicians participated. Stimuli consisted of selected tempi that were varied to increase, decrease, or remain constant. Tempi were presented in two sets of 25 trials each and were varied at the rate of 10 mm per minute. Subjects were asked to indicate if each trial seemed faster, slower, or remained the same. Subjects were also asked to estimate the final metronomic markings or beats per minute of each trial. Results of the study indicate that (1) all subjects better discriminate slower tempi compared to faster tempi; (2) all subjects estimate tempi to be slower than the actual speed of the tempi; and (3) musicians are more accurate in tempi assessments compared to nonmusicians.

A 30-Year Follow-Up Study of Actual Applied Music Practice versus Estimated Practice

This study was designed to determine if adults are able to remember how much time they actually spent practicing during a past time period of their lives where detailed daily records were kept of actual number of minutes practiced. It also addressed how past practice time relates to their highest level of musical performance across the 30 years on a scale of top-level expert to competent. Responses were divided into six classifications: (1) professional, (2) semiprofessional, (3) free-lance musician/college instructor, (4) music teacher, (5) community musician, and (6) jury/senior recital. Results indicated that after a 30-year period, students are not accurate in assessing past amounts of applied music practice when comparing records of actual practice time to later perceptions of this practice time. Also, there is not a strong relationship between practice time and their highest level of performance, although most participants indicate that they believe that there is.

Measuring Musical Response

How can teachers measure something as intangible as musical preference? Teacher and researcher Clifford K. Madsen describes some techniques that researchers are using to increase their understanding of musical response.