Clive Fletcher

Performance appraisal and management: The developing research agenda

Performance appraisal has widened as a concept and as a set of practices and in the form of performance management has become part of a more strategic approach to integrating HR activities and business policies. As a result of this, the research on the subject has moved beyond the limited confines of measurement issues and accuracy of performance ratings and has begun to focus more of social and motivational aspects of appraisal. This article identifies and discusses a number of themes and trends that together make up the developing research agenda for this field. It breaks these down in terms of the nature of appraisal and the context in which it operates. The former is considered in terms of contemporary thinking on the content of appraisal (contextual performance, goal orientation and self awareness) and the process of appraisal (appraiser-appraisee interaction, and multi-source feedback). The discussion of the context of appraisal concentrates on cultural differences and the impact of new technology. In reviewing these emerging areas of research, the article seeks to explore some of the implications for appraisal practice at both organizational and individual levels.

Employee development:an organizational justice perspective

The present study examined possible links between elements of perceived procedural justice, global fairness perception and attitudinal measures in a review/development context. Organizational justice and possible correlates were reviewed resulting in four hypotheses. Data was collected from 132 employees of the UK arm of an international new media agency via a web‐based survey. It was found that a psychometric instrument based on Gillilands (Gilliland, S.W., “The perceived fairness of selection systems: an organizational justice perspective”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 18 No. 4, 1993, pp. 694‐734) ten rules of procedural justice proved a valuable framework in a review and development context once condensed to a smaller number of factors. Of these, two factors relating to interpersonal effectiveness and formal system characteristics respectively were found to be of importance in predicting fairness ratings of the development process. The impact of 360‐degree feedback on procedural justice perceptions was also examined in between group comparisons. Implications for further research into development techniques using organizational justice frameworks and recommendations for practice were discussed.

A study of individual differences and self‐awareness in the context of multi‐source feedback

Studies of multi-source feedback systems have compared individuals’ self-assessments with others’ ratings of them on various performance dimensions. The extent of the congruence of self- with other-ratings has been used as a measure of self-awareness (SAw), and this variable has been found to be significantly related to a number of performance outcomes. However, little attention has so far been given to investigating what characteristics are associated with SAw. The study reported here examined the relationship of personality and cognitive ability measures to SAw in a group of managers participating in a multi-source (360 degree) feedback process. The 45 target managers assessed themselves on six management competencies and were also rated by 353 bosses and colleagues. Measures of SAw were obtained using the methodology outlined by Yammarino and Atwater (1997), and were calculated separately in relation to bosses ratings and colleagues ratings. Target managers completed measures of personality (Cattell 16PF and Firo-B) and cognitive ability (Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking). The target managers showed considerable variation in their level of SAw, and a number of personality and cognitive scores were found to be related to SAw. However, some of the correlates of SAw differed according to whether the rater group were bosses or colleagues. The conceptualization of SAw and its use as an assessment measure are discussed.

Assessing self‐awareness: some issues and methods

Multi‐source processes have been increasingly adopted by organisations in recent years and most projections suggest this trend will continue. As a developmental technique, one underlying rationale to such systems is their potential impact on target managers’ self‐awareness; increasing self awareness is thought to enhance performance. The main theme of this paper relates to the potential of 360‐degree assessment for yielding measures of self‐awareness and the different ways of deriving indices of this variable. The relationship between self‐awareness indices and measures of performance are discussed in light of research findings. It is concluded that different self‐awareness measures used in the research literature are not equivalent, and may have differential relationships to performance. It is argued that self‐awareness should be assessed in selection and other settings using a variety of methods, not necessarily utilizing the kinds of measures typically associated with multi‐source feedback systems.

The Psychometric Properties of 360 Degree Feedback: An Empirical Study and a Cautionary Tale

Amongst the purported advantages of multi-rater feedback systems is their greater accuracy and objectivity. It is argued here that these benefits may be more imagined than real, and that there is no reason to believe such systems will avoid many of the rating errors and distortions found in traditional top-down appraisal. The first study reported in this paper investigates the psychometric soundness and concurrent validity of a pilot 360 degree feedback scheme operated by a multi-national oil company. The second study describes how analysis of the data provided by the first study was used to re-design the rating form, and demonstrates the resulting improvement achieved in the psychometric properties of the 360 degree scheme. It also examined some of the variables that influence rater’s assessment of the target managers. The conclusion is drawn that unless such feedback systems — irrespective of whether they are used for development or for appraisal — are constructed and evaluated along the lines associated with psychometric tests, they may produce assessments that are seriously misleading.

Ethical issues in the selection interview

This article evaluates various aspects of the selection interview in terms of the major principles of business ethics. It looks at both interviewer and interviewee behavior and examines the ethical questions that arise around five key themes: Preparation for the interview; Openness, disclosure and the invasion of privacy; Honesty and impression management; Power relationships in the interview; The use of interview information in decision making. It is argued that clear guidelines for ethical behavior in the interview are needed and would actually serve to increase the effectiveness of the method. Various topics that require empirical investigation are identified, and some parallels drawn with research on other assessment methods.

Internationalization of multi-source feedback systems: a six-country exploratory analysis of 360-degree feedback

In the past few years, few human resource practices have received as much attention as multi-source feedback systems (MSFSs). In the US and Canada, it is estimated that over one-third of organizations are using some form of MSFS and recent surveys show that this practice is still gaining popularity. Concurrently, a substantial amount of literature has focused on the effectiveness of this performance management practice. However, while few would dispute the popularity of MSFS, relatively little has been published on the use of these systems outside North America and thus little is known about their form and effectiveness in international contexts. This paper outlines the results of an international survey of MSFS. Interview data from HR managers and consultants from Argentina, Australia, China, Slovakia, Spain and the UK demonstrate that MSFS are being implemented, in slightly different ways, in each of these six countries. The main challenges in the application of MSFS in these various countries are the communication efforts necessary before and after implementation, and the inherent difficulty in giving and receiving feedback. The results of this study also provide data as to the perceived future of MSFS in each of the countries surveyed.

Personality Type and Cognitive Style

Examined the relationship between cognitive style and personality type as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. 31 male and 46 female undergraduate students completed the Indicator and several cognitive instruments including a memory scale, measures of cognitive complexity and integration, verbal ability, and selective attention and recall. Correlational analysis showed there to be significant variations in cognitive style with different preferences on the Indicator. Although conclusions can only be tentative, feeling types tended to be better at verbal-based tests, whereas perceiving types tended to be better at tasks requiring cognitive control and attention.

AN INVESTIGATION OF SOME COGNITIVE FACTORS INVOLVED IN PERSON-PERCEPTION DURING SELECTION INTERVIEWS

The study examined some of the cognitive components in accuracy of social perception during the selection interview. 75 undergraduates completed several cognitive measures and were then required to interview a candidate for the job of accountant and make ratings of the candidate on several dimensions. Analysis showed pervasive sex differences in accuracy, and many effects specific either to same sex or to opposite sex dyads. Accuracy of female interviewers tended to be associated with greater cognitive complexity and integration of the interviewers. Accuracy of male interviewers was more dependent on the sex of the candidate; when interviewing a male candidate, accuracy was negatively associated with cognitive integration and when interviewing a female candidate, accuracy was negatively associated with the logical memory and visual recall subscales of the Wechsler Memory Scale.

Candidate Anxiety Level and Assessment Centre Performance

Describes the extent to which attending an assessment centre (AC) generates anxiety amongst candidates, and its effects on them. Questionnaires were administered to 70 bank staff before and after attending ACs. Results show candidates experienced rather high levels of anxiety, and that higher anxiety level was associated with lower ratings given by assessors, though the candidates′ post‐AC self‐perceptions of ability tended to be higher for those with higher anxiety. The nature of the anxiety reported seemed to be situation‐specific and to be akin to test anxiety and evaluation apprehension. Discusses findings in terms of implications for the quality of the assessments made and the way in which ACs should be run to minimize anxiety effects.