Clotilde S. Cucinotta

Solvent Exfoliation of Transition Metal Dichalcogenides: Dispersibility of Exfoliated Nanosheets Varies Only Weakly between Compounds

We have studied the dispersion and exfoliation of four inorganic layered compounds, WS(2), MoS(2), MoSe(2), and MoTe(2), in a range of organic solvents. The aim was to explore the relationship between the chemical structure of the exfoliated nanosheets and their dispersibility. Sonication of the layered compounds in solvents generally gave few-layer nanosheets with lateral dimensions of a few hundred nanometers. However, the dispersed concentration varied greatly from solvent to solvent. For all four materials, the concentration peaked for solvents with surface energy close to 70 mJ/m(2), implying that all four have surface energy close to this value. Inverse gas chromatography measurements showed MoS(2) and MoSe(2) to have surface energies of ∼75 mJ/m(2), in good agreement with dispersibility measurements. However, this method suggested MoTe(2) to have a considerably larger surface energy (∼120 mJ/m(2)). While surface-energy-based solubility parameters are perhaps more intuitive for two-dimensional materials, Hansen solubility parameters are probably more useful. Our analysis shows the dispersed concentration of all four layered materials to show well-defined peaks when plotted as a function of Hansens dispersive, polar, and H-bonding solubility parameters. This suggests that we can associate Hansen solubility parameters of δ(D) ∼ 18 MPa(1/2), δ(P) ∼ 8.5 MPa(1/2), and δ(H) ∼ 7 MPa(1/2) with all four types of layered material. Knowledge of these properties allows the estimation of the Flory-Huggins parameter, χ, for each combination of nanosheet and solvent. We found that the dispersed concentration of each material falls exponentially with χ as predicted by solution thermodynamics. This work shows that solution thermodynamics and specifically solubility parameter analysis can be used as a framework to understand the dispersion of two-dimensional materials. Finally, we note that in good solvents, such as cyclohexylpyrrolidone, the dispersions are temporally stable with >90% of material remaining dispersed after 100 h.

Liquid exfoliation of solvent-stabilized few-layer black phosphorus for applications beyond electronics.

Few-layer black phosphorus (BP) is a new two-dimensional material which is of great interest for applications, mainly in electronics. However, its lack of environmental stability severely limits its synthesis and processing. Here we demonstrate that high-quality, few-layer BP nanosheets, with controllable size and observable photoluminescence, can be produced in large quantities by liquid phase exfoliation under ambient conditions in solvents such as N-cyclohexyl-2-pyrrolidone (CHP). Nanosheets are surprisingly stable in CHP, probably due to the solvation shell protecting the nanosheets from reacting with water or oxygen. Experiments, supported by simulations, show reactions to occur only at the nanosheet edge, with the rate and extent of the reaction dependent on the water/oxygen content. We demonstrate that liquid-exfoliated BP nanosheets are potentially useful in a range of applications from ultrafast saturable absorbers to gas sensors to fillers for composite reinforcement.

Basal-Plane Functionalization of Chemically Exfoliated Molybdenum Disulfide by Diazonium Salts

Although transition metal dichalcogenides such as MoS2 have been recognized as highly potent two-dimensional nanomaterials, general methods to chemically functionalize them are scarce. Herein, we demonstrate a functionalization route that results in organic groups bonded to the MoS2 surface via covalent C-S bonds. This is based on lithium intercalation, chemical exfoliation and subsequent quenching of the negative charges residing on the MoS2 by electrophiles such as diazonium salts. Typical degrees of functionalization are 10-20 atom % and are potentially tunable by the choice of intercalation conditions. Significantly, no further defects are introduced, and annealing at 350 °C restores the pristine 2H-MoS2. We show that, unlike both chemically exfoliated and pristine MoS2, the functionalized MoS2 is very well dispersible in anisole, confirming a significant modification of the surface properties by functionalization. DFT calculations show that the grafting of the functional group to the sulfur atoms of (charged) MoS2 is energetically favorable and that S-C bonds are formed.

Bifunctional Catalysis by Natural Cinchona Alkaloids: A Mechanism Explained

The use of bifunctional chiral catalysts, which are able to simultaneously bind and activate two reacting partners, currently represents an efficient and reliable strategy for the stereoselective preparation of valuable chiral compounds. Cinchona alkaloids such as quinine and quinidine, simple organic molecules generously provided by Nature, were the first compounds to be proposed to operate through a cooperative catalysis. To date, a full mechanistic characterization of the dual catalysis mode of cinchona alkaloids has proven a challenging objective, due to the transient, non-covalent nature of the involved catalyst-substrate interactions. Here, we propose a mechanistic rationale on how natural cinchona alkaloids act as efficient bifunctional catalysts by using a broad range of computational methods, including classical molecular dynamics, a mixed quantum mechanical/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) approach, and correlated ab-initio calculations. We also unravel the origin of enantio- and diastereoselectivity, which is due to a specific network of hydrogen bonds that stabilize the transition state of the rate-determining step. The results are validated by experimental evidence.

An in situ and ex situ TEM study into the oxidation of titanium (IV) sulphide

Titanium (IV) sulphide (TiS2) is a layered transition metal dichalcogenide, which we exfoliate using liquid phase exfoliation. TiS2 is a candidate for being part of a range of future technologies. These applications are varied, and include supercapacitor and battery energy storage devices, catalytic substrates and the splitting of water. The driving force behind our interest was as a material for energy storage devices. Here we investigate a potential failure mechanism for such devices, namely oxidation and subsequent loss of sulphur. This degradation is important to understand, since these applications are highly property-dependent, and changes to the chemistry will result in changes in desired properties. Two approaches to study oxidisation were taken: ex situ oxidation by water and oxygen at room temperature and in situ oxidation by a 5% O2/Ar gas at elevated temperatures. Both sources of oxygen resulted in oxidation of the starting TiS2 flakes, with differing morphologies. Water produced amorphous oxide slowly growing in from the edge of the flakes. Oxygen gas at ≥375 °C produced crystalline oxide, with a range of structures due to oxidation initiating from various regions of the observed flakes.TiS 2 oxidation: moisture is the critical element preventing environmental stabilityThe degradation dynamics of TiS2 reveal that the flakes oxidise in water and atmosphere, pointing towards moisture as the key driving force. A team led by Valeria Nicolosi at Trinity College Dublin used advanced electron microscopy techniques to investigate the influence of different environments on the deterioration pathways of TiS2, a promising candidate for future energy storage applications. By comparing the effect of ex-situ oxidation by water and oxygen at room temperature, and in-situ oxidation at high temperatures, water was proven to effectively oxidise the TiS2 flakes from the edges thereby forming an amorphous oxide phase. Conversely, the degradation was found to proceed more slowly in atmosphere or vacuum conditions. These results suggest that TiS2 oxidation could be avoided in a desiccated environment that would prevent water molecules from dissociating in reactive ionic species.

Saturated carboxylic acids on silicon: a first‐principles study

We present a first‐principles calculation of the energetics of different possible dissociative chemisorption reactions leading to the attachment of organic acids with a functional carboxylic group to a hydrogenated silicon surface. Our study allows us to understand the role of oxygen atoms in the stable anchoring of the organic layer to the surface.