Coby Gerlsma

Anxiety, depression, and perception of early parenting: A meta-analysis.

Abstract The literature on perceived parental rearing practices in depressed and anxious patients is reviewed by means of a meta-analysis. To this aim, the psychometric and validational properties of questionnaires measuring perceptions of parental rearing styles were investigated, and only studies using satisfactory measures were included in the meta-analysis. Studies were grouped into various categories, such as specific type of disorder, remitted versus nonremitted cases, males versus females, and state versus trait measures of anxiety and depression. It is concluded that various types of phobic disorder were related to a parental rearing style of less Affection and more Control as compared to healthy controls. Findings with regard to depression appeared to be less consistent. Possible explanations for these inconsistencies are offered. Finally, problems with respect to validity of retrospective assessment of parental rearing practices are discussed, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Convergent validity of the dimensions underlying the parental bonding instrument (PBI) and the EMBU

Abstract It has been suggested that the major dimensions of perceived parental rearing behaviour that underlie the EMBU (Emotional Warmth, Rejection and Protection) and the PBI (Care and Protection) may be considered parallel tests of the same constructs. Empirical findings however to back up this allegation are not available. Convergent and divergent validity was therefore assessed in three independent samples: (1) community Ss, (2) unselected psychiatric patients, and (3) eating disordered in-patients and their parents. It was demonstrated in each sample that Emotional Warmth (EMBU) and Care (PBI) are indeed measures of the same construct. Predicted negative correlations between EMBU Rejection and PBI Care were also confirmed. A sizeable overlap was observed between homologous Protection scales. PBI Protection, however, correlated in one out of three samples as high with EMBU Protection as with EMBU Rejection, with these EMBU measures being moderately intercorrelated. It was concluded that EMBU Protection would represent a better measure of its underlying construct than would hold for its PBI equivalent. The strong association between Protection and Rejection was understood in the context of the conceptualization and operational definition of the higher-order Control Attempts concept proposed by Rollins and Thomas (1979). For use in research and in clinical and/or applied practice, the EMBU should be recommended above the PBI.

Internal and external validity of the experiences in close relationships questionnaire in an american and two dutch samples

Background and objectives: The Experiences in Close Relationships scale (ECR) is much used in adult attachment research. In this study we examined: the psychometric properties of the Dutch ECR in comparison with the original American ECR; the claim of orthogonality of its scales Avoidance and Anxiety; and a broader applicability of the ECR, because much research is restricted to psychology student samples. Methods: In Study 1 we investigated the ECRs internal structure by means of confirmative factor analysis in the American psychology student sample in which the ECR was originally validated. We compared these findings with the results of factor analyses in: a Dutch psychology student sample to test whether the Dutch translation yields comparable results; and a Dutch general population sample to evaluate the Supposed orthogonality and to determine a broader applicability of the ECR. In Study 2 we evaluated aspects of the external validity of the ECR. Results: Confirmative factor analysis supports the original two factor structure in both Dutch samples, although less clear in the population sample. As opposed to both student samples the scales correlate moderately in the population sample. Results support external validity of the ECR in both Dutch samples. Conclusions: Since the supposed orthogonality of the scales varies by sample, the internal validity of the (Dutch) ECR varies by sample as well, namely from satisfactorily (population) to adequate (students). The external validity of the Dutch ECR is compared to the American version adequate, suggesting a broader applicability.

Does the level of expressed emotion (LEE) questionnaire have the same factor structure for adolescents as it has for adults

BackgroundThe level of expressed emotion (LEE) is a four-factor questionnaire that measures expressed emotion (EE) as perceived by the recipient. These factors are: perceived lack of emotional support, perceived intrusiveness, perceived irritation, and perceive criticism. The four factors of the LEE has previously been found to be related to psychological disorders and has good psychometric properties for adults. However, it has not previously been studied in adolescent populations.MethodsA total of 311 adolescents participated in this study. Using structural equation modeling, confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine if the LEE also had the same four-factor structure for adolescents as it does for adults.ResultsThe confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that the LEE’s four-factor structure also applied to adolescents. The internal consistency of the scales were good and all the inter-correlations between the scales were significant. Additionally, the factors were significantly correlated to adolescent depressive and anxiety symptom score dimensions.ConclusionThese findings seem to indicate that the LEE may be a good instrument in the measurement of adolescents perceived EE.

MARITAL FUNCTIONING AND THE ANXIETY DISORDERS

The present paper provides a review of the literature on the relationship between marital factors and anxiety disorders. The review is based on both a descriptive and quantitative analysis. Studies of the marital relationship and outcome of exposure therapy are reviewed, as are studies investigating the effects of exposure therapy on the partner and on the marital relationship. Results with respect to the effects of marital distress on outcome are inconclusive. Exposure does not have a negative impact on the partner or the relationship. In agoraphobia, spouse-aided therapy is no more effective than individual exposure therapy. In obsessive-compulsive patients, results are inconclusive.

Recall of shame and favouritism in relation to psychopathology

OBJECTIVES There is good evidence that early rearing experiences affect vulnerability to subsequent psychopathology. Recent research on memories of rearing style have been influenced by attachment theory and have focused primarily on domains of emotional warmth and control. However, early experiences of being shamed, criticized and made to feel inferior, together with believing ones sibling is favoured over oneself, are also likely to play a role in vulnerability. This study therefore explored recall of being shamed and sibling favouritism. METHOD A large community sample (N = 638) and a varied non-psychotic patient sample (N = 213) completed two recall of parent rearing scales (the PBI and EMBU). These gave measures of recall of emotional warmth, overprotection/control, being shamed and shown up, and self or sibling favouring. Participants also completed the SCL-90-R scale. RESULTS Patients recalled less warmth, more control, more shame and more favouring of siblings than the community sample. The difference was greatest for shame, and following MANOVA analysis shame remained significantly different between the two groups even after controlling for emotional warmth and control. Similarly, recalling being less favoured than a sibling and shamed had robust associations with indicators of psychopathology and these were only marginally reduced when emotional warmth was controlled for. Moreover, hostility (as measured by the SCL-90-R) was specifically related to recall of being shamed but not emotional warmth. CONCLUSION This study suggests that over and above issues of emotional warmth and control, recall of direct experiences of being shamed, feeling inferior and less favoured in a family, may be particularly pathogenic. They operate independently of warmth and may be especially important in proneness to hostile feelings. Given this, therapists may wish to specifically explore shame issues with patients.

Attributional style questioned: Psychometric evaluation of the ASQ in Dutch adolescents

Abstract This study presents data on the psychometric properties and validity of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), administered as part of a learned helplessness experiment among 278 Dutch adolescents. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that there was only weak evidence for the presumed ASQ dimensions. Further analyses revealed that situations seem to explain more variance than attributional styles. Correlations with mood and depressive symptoms were low or absent. The ASQ unsatisfactorily predicted attributions for noncontingent success or failure on an IQ test. Experimental effects on mood, expectancy and achievement were poorly predicted by the ASQ. Predictive and discriminant validity of ASQ subscales were weak, results reflecting sex-dependency. In contradiction to the concept of depressive attributional style, internal and stable styles for good outcomes were associated with negative emotions following noncontingent success. Girls with these styles showed relatively more hostility after noncontingent success, suggesting that the success offended sex-related norms. Unless the test format causes the disappointing results, this study suggests that: (1) the concept of cross-situationally consistent traitlike attributional style should be questioned, (2) theories about effects of failure and success should take sex differences and situation specifity into account, and (3) the construct of conscious-verbal, explicit attribution as a determinant of emotions and behavior may be inadequate.

Correlates of Self-Reported Adult Attachment Styles in a Dutch Sample of Married Men and Women:

The relationships between attachment style, recollections of the family of origin, working model of self and others and current relational satisfaction were examined in a Dutch sample of married subjects from the general community. Measures were adapted from those developed by Hazan & Shaver (1987). Results generally corroborated the Hazan & Shaver (1987) analyses: subjects endorsing the avoidant and anxious ambivalent styles reported more adverse childhood experiences, i.e. less affectionate and more rejecting parents and more experiences related with separations, as well as a more fearful model of self and others. For men and women the same-sex parent appeared to be more important than the other-sex parent. Moreover, only among men and not among women was attachment style related to current relational satisfaction. All effects were obtained while controlling for age and social desirability, thus enhancing the validity and generalizability of the findings.

Mood and memories of early parenting: Connotation of two parental rearing style questionnaires

The relationship consistently found between adult depression and recalled parental rearing styles cannot, as yet, confirm that early parenting plays a role in the etiology of depression. Memories of adverse childhood experiences may be epiphenomena of depression. The connotative meaning of questionnaire items assessing recalled parenting may be an important moderator variable in this respect. In the present study the connotation of the items of two frequently used questionnaires measuring memories of parental rearing styles (i.e. the Parental Bonding Instrument and the EMBU) were evaluated by independent raters. With high interrater-agreement, it was shown that most items and subscales have a very clear positive or negative connotation. Comparisons across the two instruments revealed that homologous subscales do not differ from one another in terms of connotative meaning. Implications and suggestions for future research in this area are discussed.

Revenge and psychological adjustment after homicidal loss

Feelings of revenge are a common human response to being hurt by others. Among crime victims of severe sexual or physical violence, significant correlations have been reported between revenge and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Homicide is one of the most severe forms of interpersonal violence. It is therefore likely that individuals bereaved by homicide experience high levels of revenge, which may hamper efforts to cope with traumatic loss. The relationship between revenge and psychological adjustment following homicidal loss has not yet been empirically examined. In the current cross-sectional study, we used self-report data from 331 spouses, family members and friends of homicide victims to examine the relationships between dispositional revenge and situational revenge on the one hand and symptom-levels of PTSD and complicated grief, as well as indices of positive functioning, on the other hand. Furthermore, the association between revenge and socio-demographic and offense-related factors was examined. Participants were recruited from a governmental support organization, a website with information for homicidally bereaved individuals, and members of support groups. Levels of both dispositional and situational revenge were positively associated with symptoms of PTSD and complicated grief, and negatively with positive functioning. Participants reported significantly less situational revenge in cases where the perpetrator was a direct family member than cases where the perpetrator was an indirect family member, friend, or someone unknown. Homicidally bereaved individuals reported more situational revenge, but not more dispositional revenge than a sample of students who had experienced relatively mild interpersonal transgressions.