Colin T. Dourish

Behavioural and pharmacological characterisation of the elevated “zero-maze” as an animal model of anxiety

The elevated “zero-maze” is a modification of the elevated plus-maze model of anxiety in rats which incorporates both traditional and novel ethological measures in the analysis of drug effects. The novel design comprises an elevated annular platform with two opposite enclosed quadrants and two open, removing any ambiguity in interpretation of time spent on the central square of the traditional design and allowing uninterrupted exploration. Using this model, the reference benzodiazepine anxiolytics, diazepam (0.125–0.5 mg/kg) and chlordiazepoxide (0.5–2.0 mg/kg) significantly increased the percentage of time spent in the open quadrants (% TO) and the frequency of head dips over the edge of the platform (HDIPS), and reduced the frequency of stretched attend postures (SAP) from the closed to open quadrants. In contrast, the anxiogenic drugm-chlorophenyl-piperazine (mCPP; 0.25–1.0 mg/kg) induced the opposite effects, decreasing %TO and HDIPS, and increasing SAP. The 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT; 0.001–0.1 mg/kg) had no effects on either %TO or HDIPS, but did decrease SAP at 0.01 mg/kg although not at higher or lower doses. Similarly, the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, ondansetron (0.0001–1.0 mg/kg) decreased SAP and increased %TO at 0.01 mg/kg, but not at other doses. The present data suggest that a combination of the novel “zero-maze” design and a detailed ethological analysis provides a sensitive model for the detection of anxiolytic/anxiogenic drug action.

Reduced satiating effect of d-fenfluramine in serotonin 5-HT(2C) receptor mutant mice.

Abstract  Rationale:d-Fenfluramine stimulates the release of serotonin (5-HT) and is a potent inhibitor of the re-uptake of 5-HT into nerve terminals. Administration of d-fenfluramine suppresses food intake in both animals and humans. Objective: We have investigated the role of the 5-HT2C receptor in mediating the effect of d-fenfluramine on mouse food intake and the behavioural satiety sequence. Methods: Mutant mice lacking serotonin 5-HT2C receptors and wild-type animals were habituated to a daily presentation of wet mash. Animals were non-deprived and received d-fenfluramine (3–30 mg/kg) 30 min prior to being assessed for the presence of stereotypy and presented with wet mash. The behaviour of animals was observed for the subsequent 40 min and food intake was recorded. Results:d-Fenfluramine dose-dependently inhibited the consumption of a palatable wet mash by the mice. d-Fenfluramine (3 mg/kg) significantly reduced the amount of wet mash consumed by wild-type mice and induced a temporal advance in the behavioural satiety sequence consistent with an enhancement of satiety. Mutant mice were less sensitive to the satiating effects of 3 mg/kg d-fenfluramine. Hence, this dose of d-fenfluramine had a reduced effect on both food consumption and the behavioural satiety sequence in the 5-HT2C mutant mice. In contrast, mutant mice showed an increased sensitivity to the stereotypy induced by high doses of d-fenfluramine (10, 30 mg/kg) compared to that of wild-type littermates. Conclusion: These data demonstrate a role for the 5-HT2C receptor in mediating d-fenfluramine-induced satiety.

Evidence that hypophagia induced by d-fenfluramine and d-norfenfluramine in the rat is mediated by 5-HT2C receptors

The present series of studies is the first to investigate the pharmacological mechanisms underlying d-fenfluramine- and d-norfenfluramine-induced hypophagia in the rat using highly selective serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonists. Administration of d-fenfluramine, and its major metabolite d-norfenfluramine, suppresses food intake in animals. Both compounds stimulate the release of serotonin and are potent inhibitors of the re-uptake of 5-HT into nerve terminals. In addition, d-norfenfluramine also acts as a direct 5-HT(2B/2C) receptor agonist. Pre-treatment with the selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonist, SB-242084 (0.3-3 mg/kg), dose-dependently inhibited both d-fenfluramine- (3 mg/kg) and d-norfenfluramine-induced (2 mg/kg) hypophagia. In contrast, the hypophagic effect of d-fenfluramine and d-norfenfluramine was unaffected by prior treatment with the highly selective 5-HT2B receptor antagonists, SB-215505 (0.3-3 mg/kg) and RS-127445 (1-3 mg/kg) or the 5-HT2A receptor antagonists MDL 100,907 (0.003-0.03 mg/kg) and ketanserin (0.2, 0.5 mg/kg). In addition, the 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 (0.3, 1 mg/kg) and the 5-HT1B receptor antagonists GR-127935 (1, 2 mg/kg) and SB-224289 (2-10 mg/kg) did not affect d-fenfluramine-induced hypophagia. These data provide unequivocal evidence for an important role of the 5-HT2C receptor in the mediation of d-fenfluramine and d-norfenfluramine-induced hypophagia in the rat and do not support the involvement of 5-HT1A/1B/2A/2B receptors.

Dissociation between cognitive and motor/motivational deficits in the delayed matching to position test: effects of scopolamine, 8-OH-DPAT and EAA antagonists

The effects of the muscarinic antagonists scopolamine HBr and MeBr, the 5-HT1A agonst 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT), and theN-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists MK-801 and CGS-19755 on performance of rats in a delayed matching-to-position task were examined. Pretreatment with scopolamine HBr (0.05 and 0.1 mg/kg), resulted in a delay-dependent decrease in the percentage of correct responses and discriminability (logd), but had no effect on either the latency to complete trials, or the rate of trial completion during the fixed duration session. Scopolamine MeBr (0.1 mg/kg) did not impair percent correct or increase the response latency but did decrease the rate of trial completion. 8-OH-DPAT (up to 0.3 mg/kg), had no effect on percent correct, but did induce a small decrease in discriminability. The impairment in discriminability occurred only at a dose that substantially reduced the rate of trial completion. Both MK-801 (0.05 mg/kg) and CGS 19755 (10 mg/kg) induced a delay-independent impairment in percent correct, discriminability and a reduction in the rate of trial completion without affecting latency. A lower dose of CGS 19755 (5.0 mg/kg) induced a slight impairment in discriminability without significantly affecting the other measures. Taken together, these results demonstrate some dissocation between drug-induced cognitive and motor/motivational deficits in the DMTP test. However, the data question the specificity of putative cognitive impairments reported in many previous studies with the 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT.

Behavioural and pharmacological characterisation of the canopy stretched attend posture test as a model of anxiety in mice and rats

Abstract The behavioural element, stretched attend posture (SAP), is an important component of the “risk-assessment” repertoire of defensive behaviour in rodents. The present experimental paradigm was devised as a novel and simple method of eliciting high levels of SAP in mice and rats. The SAP test apparatus comprised an elevated black Perspex circular platform. A smaller clear red Perspex circular “Canopy” was supported directly above the platform by a central pillar, thus dividing the platform into an inner, dimly lit covered zone and an outer, brightly lit exposed zone. In both the rat and mouse version of this model, vehicle-treated animals exhibited a marked preference for exploring the covered zone and also exhibited high baseline levels of SAP, particularly at the covered zone boundary whilst they investigated the exposed zone. In the mouse SAP test, the benzodiazepine receptor agonists, diazepam (0.5 mg/kg SC) and chlordiazepoxide (2 mg/kg SC), and the 5-HT1A receptor agonists, buspirone (1 and 3 mg/kg SC), ipsapirone (3 mg/kg SC) and 8-OH-DPAT (0.2 mg/kg SC), all significantly decreased the frequency of SAP without impairing motor activity. In the rat SAP test, diazepam (0.5 mg/kg SC) significantly decreased, whilst the anxiogenic 5-HT2C/1B receptor agonist, mCPP (0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg SC), significantly increased, the frequency of SAP. Ipsapirone (3 mg/kg SC) induced a non-specific behavioural inhibition. These data suggest that the “Canopy” SAP test is a useful paradigm to investigate risk assessment behaviour in both rats and mice, and may provide a sensitive novel rodent model of anxiety.

Measurement of Anxiety in Transgenic Mice

A wide range of approaches has been used to study anxiety in mice. All presuppose that aversive stimuli, such as foot shock or novelty, induce a central state of fear, which can be quantified through specific behavioural and physiological measures. This review discusses the validity of the various approaches in terms of their similarity to different human anxiety disorders, their ability to detect compounds which modulate human anxiety, and their relevance to animal defensive processes. The most commonly used models of anxiety suitable for screening transgenic and knockout mice are discussed, with an emphasis placed on controlling for factors which could confound results. As all models used to date have limitations and no single paradigm adequately models all aspects of anxiety, this review recommends the use of a broad range of anxiety models in order to provide a comprehensive characterisation of the behavioural phenotype of transgenic mice.

mCPP-induced hyperactivity in 5-HT2C receptor mutant mice is mediated by activation of multiple 5-HT receptor subtypes.

The serotonin receptor agonist mCPP induces hyperlocomotion in 5-HT2C receptor knockout (KO) mice or in the presence of a 5-HT2C receptor antagonist. In the present group of experiments, we evaluate the role of 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors in mCPP-induced hyperactivity in 5-HT2C KO mice. We also assess the ability of agonists at these receptors to induce hyperactivity in wildtype (WT) mice pre-treated with a selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonist. As previously reported, mCPP (3 mg/kg) induced hyperactivity in 5-HT2C KO mice. A combination of the 5-HT1B receptor agonist CP-94,253 (20 mg/kg) and the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT (0.5 mg/kg) induced marked hyperactivity in WT but not in 5-HT2C KO mice, nor in mice treated with the selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonist, SB 242084 (1.5 mg/kg). Neither CP-94,253 nor 8-OH-DPAT had any intrinsic effect on locomotion in WTs. mCPP-induced hyperactivity was attenuated in 5-HT2C KO mice by the 5-HT1B receptor antagonist SB 224289 (2.5 mg/kg), and the 5-HT2A receptor antagonists ketanserin (0.3 mg/kg) and M100907 (0.01 mg/kg) but not by the 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY 100635 (1 mg/kg). The 5-HT(2A/2B/2C) receptor agonist, Ro 60-0175 (3 mg/kg), induced a modest increase in locomotor activity in WT mice pre-treated with SB 242084. However, the combination of Ro 60-0175 with CP-94,253 induced a substantial increase in activity in 5-HT2C KO mice, an effect comparable to mCPP-induced hyperactivity. Thus, joint activation of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors stimulates locomotion in WT mice but this response is dependent on a functional 5-HT2C receptor population and hence is absent in 5-HT2C KO mice. By contrast, mCPP-induced hyperactivity depends on the inactivation of a separate 5-HT2C receptor population and is mediated by 5-HT2A and 5-HT1B receptor activation.

5-HT1B receptor knockout mice show a compensatory reduction in 5-HT2C receptor function.

Although null mutant (‘knockout’) mice have provided valuable animal models to complement traditional approaches to psychopharmacology, such animals may also show complex adaptations to the induced mutation. Here we demonstrate that serotonin1B (5‐HT1B) receptor knockout (KO) mice show adaptations in serotonin2C (5‐HT2C) receptor‐mediated functions. They show smaller reductions in food intake and locomotor activity in response to administration of 5‐HT2C receptor agonists that are not accounted for by altered drug disposition. These effects are not mimicked by pretreatment of wildtype (WT) mice with a 5‐HT1B receptor antagonist showing that they result from a longer term adaptation to the loss of 5‐HT1B receptor function and not from a short‐term interaction between 5‐HT1B‐ and 5‐HT2C‐mediated functions. In addition, we show that 5‐HT1B receptor KO mice have a lowered hypothalamic c‐fos response to the administration of 5‐HT2C receptor agonists. These results demonstrate that compensatory adaptations to the constitutive loss of 5‐HT1B receptors may be an important determinant of the altered response of 5‐HT1B KO mice to a variety of pharmacological challenges.

Behavioural evidence thatd-fenfluramine-induced anorexia in the rat is not mediated by the 5-HT1A receptor subtype

These studies investigated the involvement of the 5-HT1A receptor in mediatingd-fenfluramine-induced anorexia in the rat. Non-deprived,d-fenfluramine-treated (3.0 mg/kg) rats consumed a reduced amount of a palatable wet mash and showed a temporal advance in the behavioural sequence consistent with satiety. Thus, rats treated withd-fenfluramine ceased feeding and began resting before corresponding controls. Pretreatment with the selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 (1.0 mg/kg) had no effect on either the reduced mash consumption or behavioural satiety sequence ofd-fenfluramine-treated animals at a dose which was found to attenuate the anorexia induced by the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT (0.5 mg/kg). Pretreatment with the nonselective 5-HT antagonist metergoline (1.0 mg/kg) attenuated thed-fenfluramine-induced reduction of mash consumption and the advanced offset of feeding. Metergoline pretreatment had no effect on the advanced onset of resting observed ind-fenfluramine-treated animals. These data suggest thatd-fenfluramine reduces food intake, perhaps by enhancing satiety, via a mechanism which does not involve the 5-HT1A receptor subtype. The implications of these results to the utility of the behavioural satiety sequence as a measure of postprandial satiety are discussed.

Effects of the selective angiotensin II receptor antagonists losartan and PD123177 in animal models of anxiety and memory

There is increasing interest in the potential functional role of the octapeptide angiotensin II (AII) in psychiatric and cognitive disorders. The novel angiotensin II (AII) receptor antagonists, losartan and PD123177, selective for the AT1 and AT2 receptor subtypes respectively, constitute important pharmacological tools for the assessment of the behavioural consequences of modulation of AII function. The present series of studies investigated the effects of each compound in two animal models of anxiety, the rat elevated zero-maze and mouse light/dark box, and two models of working memory in the rat, the operant delayed matching to position (DMTP) task and the spatial reinforced alternation test in the T-maze. Our data indicate that both compounds (0.01–10 mg/kg SC) were without significant effect in any of the behavioural assays. Using the present methods and strains of laboratory rodents, these findings provide no support for the involvement of AII receptor function in the mediation of anxiety or working memory.