Constance L. Shehan

Exchange and Resource Theories

Conceptual frameworks are often organized around a metaphor (Gergen et al., 1980). When the metaphor is powerful and embraced by the culture, the framework is easily understood and readily adapted to explain a wide range of phenomenon. During the 1960s, the social exchange framework was formally advanced in the work of sociologists George Homans (1961) and Peter Blau (1964a) and the work of social psychologists John Thibaut and Harold Kelley (1959). Each of these perspectives make use of an economic metaphor. They view social relationships as extended “markets” in which each individual acts out of self-interest with the goal of maximizing profits. Thibaut and Kelley assert, for example, that “… every individual voluntarily enters and stays in any relationship only as long as it is adequately satisfactory in terms of his rewards and costs” (1959, p. 37). Likewise, Homans asserts that “… the open secret of human exchange is to give the other man behavior that is more valuable to him than it is costly to you and to get from him behavior that is more valuable to you than it is costly to him” (1961, p. 62).

Social Relations and the Self-Esteem of Older Persons:

This study employs survey data from a sample of persons 55 years of age and older to examine the antecedents of self-esteem. Hypotheses are derived from a theoretical orientation that hinges on the ability of the individual to terminate relations that might be productive of negative reflected appraisals. Consistent with hypotheses, friendship interaction is positively related to self-esteem, whereas kinship interaction is not. Marital satisfaction also affects self-esteem positively; among men, this effect is stronger for the retired than for the employed. Finally, never-married and nonemployed older women have lower self-esteem than other women have. Implications are drawn regarding the importance and role of self-esteem in theories of psychological well-being among older persons.

Religious Heterogamy, Religiosity, and Marital Happiness: The Case of Catholics.

This study assesses the relationship between religious heterogamy and the marital happiness of Catholics, employing data from NORC General Social Surveys. A logistic regression analysis with interaction terms enables us to ascertain (a) whether any observed effect of heterogamy is attributable to correlated differences in religiosity; and (b) whether religiosity and heterogamy interact in affecting marital happiness. The findings show that heterogamy is not related to marital happiness for Catholics, either at the bivariate level or when religiosity and other variables are controlled. Religiosity, however, does have a positive effect on marital happiness, but only among homogamous Catholics.

Expected Versus Actual Work Roles of Women

This paper examines the impact of womens long-range work plans for mid life on actual work behavior at that age for a cohort of women who were 35 in 1980. We hypothesized that work plans would significantly affect actual behavior at mid life, and moreover, would modify the effects of many variables typically associated with womens employment. Our findings indicate plans did influence subsequent behavior, largely reflecting the realization of plans for those who expected to be employed. Further, marital and fertility status considerably influenced the labor force behavior only of those who expected to be at home, while employment history affected the employment only for those expecting to be employed. These results suggest: (I) demographic and economic change over the 1970s differentially affected this cohorts ability to actualize plans for mid life; and (2) She employment behavior of those who planned to be full-time housewives may be a transitory response to changes in their domestic roles.

Spouse Support and Vietnam Veterans' Adjustment to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

It has been estimated that as many as 50% of the 800,000 combat veterans from the Vietnam conflict still suffer from un resolved war experiences. A recent government study, however, concluded that veterans who have a supportive marital relationship are considerably more likely to be able to successfully adjust to the delayed stresses of combat. This paperpresents a conceptual model of the role of spouse support in Vietnam veterans adjustment to post-traumatic stress syndrome and discusses the implications of the model for therapeutic intervention.

Women in Age-Discrepant Marriages

This research seeks to identify salient sociodemographic correlates of womens likelihood of marrying outside the normative age patterns. The data were drawn from the Public Use Sample of the 1980 Census. Logistic regression analyses show that Black women are significantly more likely than White women to be in age-heterogamous marriages. Marital history appears to be the strongest predictor of age-discrepant marriages - remarried subjects exhibit the highest probability of entering such unions. The analysis also suggests that wives who are heterogamous on other dimensions vis-à-vis their husbands are also more likely to be in age-heterogamous marriages.

Sociodemographic perspectives on pregnant women at work

In this article, we review trends in the employment of American women in both the civilian labor force and the military over the course of the 20th century, with a particular emphasis given to the years after World War II. The occupational distribution of women in the civilian labor force and in the military is examined with consideration given to the hazards these female-dominated jobs may pose for workers. Finally, we briefly discuss several simple steps that can be taken to reduce the risk of occupational hazards to womens health while remaining within the federal legislative mandates granting women full access to employment.

Differential effects of industrial and worker resources on women's wages

Abstract A developing body of literature within the sociological examination of income equality has established the significance of industrial and worker resources in the determination of wages. However, there is little available information regarding the uniformity of their effects across different types of workers. This paper attempts to specify the ways in which various resources affect the wage rates of several categories of women workers. The major thesis is that resources produce differential payoffs depending on the location of the worker on various dimensions of stratification. Wage determination among women is hypothesized to vary by age, race, and occupational group. Hypotheses concerning the relative effects of worker and industrial resources on two age groups of black and white women in blue-collar and white-collar occupations are tested. Data from the National Longitudinal Studies of the Labor Market Experiences of Women are used to test models of wage determination among these different groups of women workers. In general, our results suggest that stratification is an important mechanism linking resources to wages and should be incorporated into the resource perspective of labor outcomes.

Emotional Bonds and Social Support Exchange Between Men Living With HIV Infection and Their Mothers

Men infected with HIV are often faced with caregiving responsibilities of aging, ill parents, while simultaneously looking for support from their parents in dealing with their own health problems. Unfortunately, the reciprocal roles of HIV-positive adult sons and aging mothers as caregivers have not been examined. To address this gap in the literature, HIV-positive men (n = 118) answered open-ended questions about the support they exchanged with their mothers, completed the Depth of Relationships Inventory, and rated the importance of health-related assistance between themselves and their mothers. The men viewed themselves as important providers of both instrumental and emotional support to their mothers. Men perceived their mothers to be significant providers of emotional support but only moderately important in providing instrumental support. About a third of the men responded that the help they provided and received from the mothers in managing each other’s health and staying healthy was extremely important. Men regarded their relationships with their mothers as one of their most important social relationships. Non-White men rated the quality of their mother–son relationships more highly, exchanged more instrumental support, and provided more emotional support to their mothers than White men. Men who disclosed their HIV-positive status to their mothers rated the importance of the help they received from their mothers in managing their illnesses higher than men who had not disclosed.

The Longitudinal Effects of Spirituality on Stress, Depression, and Risk Behaviors Among Men with HIV Infection Attending Three Clinics in the Southeastern United States

ABSTRACT. We examined the associations of two measures of spirituality (i.e., spiritual growth and religious coping) and perceived stress, depression, hazardous alcohol use, and use of tobacco and illicit drugs over time among men who had tested positive for HIV. Data were collected from 226 men at baseline, 197 at a 12‐month follow‐up, and 184 at a 24‐month follow‐up. There were significant time by spiritual growth interactions found for both perceived stress and depression. Increased spiritual growth, that is, spirituality that focuses on seeking meaning, purpose, and transcendence was significantly associated with reduced perceived stress and reduced depression, and the effects varied at different time points. Spiritual growth was not associated with specific risk behaviors (hazardous alcohol use, tobacco and illicit drug use). The effects of religious coping (e.g. Bible reading, prayer, church attendance) on outcomes were consistent across all time points. Religious coping was not significantly associated with perceived stress but it was negatively associated with depression. Moreover, increased religious coping was significantly associated with the likelihood of reduced hazardous alcohol use and illicit drug use. This research was supported by a Veterans Affairs Health Services Research and Development Nursing Research Initiative Grant (#98‐182) and by a Veterans Affairs Health Services Research and Development Research Career Development Award (#99011).