Corina M. Borza

Alternate replication in B cells and epithelial cells switches tropism of Epstein-Barr virus.

Epstein–Barr virus is ubiquitous and is causally implicated in lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. Virus invades oropharyngeal mucosa and establishes latency in B lymphocytes. Reactivating lymphocytes shed virus into saliva for spread to new hosts. A complex of three virus glycoproteins, gH, gL and gp42, is essential for entry. B-cell entry requires binding of gp42 to human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II whereas entry into epithelial cells lacking HLA class II requires complexes without gp42. To accommodate infection of each, the virus carries both three-part and two-part complexes. We show here that HLA class II in the virus-producing cell alters the ratio of three-part to two-part complexes. As a consequence, virus originating in epithelial cells efficiently infects B cells whereas B-cell–derived virus better infects epithelial cells. This molecular switch is a novel strategy that could alter tropism of virus from epithelium to B cells and then back to epithelium in a new host.

Epstein-Barr Virus gH Is Essential for Penetration of B Cells but Also Plays a Role in Attachment of Virus to Epithelial Cells

ABSTRACT Entry of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) into B cells is initiated by attachment of glycoprotein gp350 to the complement receptor type 2 (CR2). A complex of three glycoproteins, gH, gL, and gp42, is subsequently required for penetration. Gp42 binds to HLA class II, which functions as an entry mediator or coreceptor and, by analogy with other herpesviruses, gH is then thought to be involved virus-cell fusion. However, entry of virus into epithelial cells is thought to be different. It can be initiated by attachment by an unknown glycoprotein in the absence of CR2. There is no interaction between gp42 and HLA class II and instead a distinct complex of only the two glycoproteins gH and gL interacts with a novel entry mediator. Again, by analogy with other viruses gH is thought to be critical to fusion. To investigate further the different roles of gH in infection of the two cell types and to examine its influence on the assembly of the gH-gL-gp42 complex, we constructed two viruses, one in which the gH open reading frame was interrupted by a cassette expressing a neomycin resistance gene and the gene for green fluorescent protein and one as a control in which the neighboring nonessential thymidine kinase gene was interrupted with the same cassette. Virus lacking gH exited from cells normally, although loss of gH resulted in rapid turnover of gL and gp42 as well. The virus bound normally to B lymphocytes but could not infect them unless cells and bound virus were treated with polyethylene glycol to induce fusion. In contrast, virus that lacked the gH complex was impaired in attachment to epithelial cells and the effects of monoclonal antibodies to gH implied that this resulted from loss of gH rather than other members of the complex. These results suggest a role for gH in both attachment and penetration into epithelial cells.

Epstein-Barr Virus Regulates c-MYC, Apoptosis, and Tumorigenicity in Burkitt Lymphoma

ABSTRACT Loss of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome from Akata Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cells is coincident with a loss of malignant phenotype, despite the fact that Akata and other EBV-positive BL cells express a restricted set of EBV gene products (type I latency) that are not known to overtly affect cell growth. Here we demonstrate that reestablishment of type I latency in EBV-negative Akata cells restores tumorigenicity and that tumorigenic potential correlates with an increased resistance to apoptosis under growth-limiting conditions. The antiapoptotic effect of EBV was associated with a higher level of Bcl-2 expression and an EBV-dependent decrease in steady-state levels of c-MYC protein. Although the EBV EBNA-1 protein is expressed in all EBV-associated tumors and is reported to have oncogenic potential, enforced expression of EBNA-1 alone in EBV-negative Akata cells failed to restore tumorigenicity or EBV-dependent down-regulation of c-MYC. These data provide direct evidence that EBV contributes to the tumorigenic potential of Burkitt lymphoma and suggest a novel model whereby a restricted latency program of EBV promotes B-cell survival, and thus virus persistence within an immune host, by selectively targeting the expression of c-MYC.

Use of gHgL for Attachment of Epstein-Barr Virus to Epithelial Cells Compromises Infection

ABSTRACT Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a lymphotropic herpesvirus. However, access to B lymphocytes during primary infection may be facilitated by replication in mucosal epithelial cells. Attachment and penetration of EBV into these two cell types are fundamentally different. Both the distribution of receptors and the cellular origin of the virus impact the efficiency of infection. Epithelial cells potentially offer a wide range of receptors with which virus can interact. We report here on analyses of epithelial cells expressing different combinations of receptors. We find that the stoichiometry of the virus glycoprotein complex that includes gHgL and gp42 affects the use of gHgL not just for entry into epithelial cells but also for attachment. Penetration can be mediated efficiently with either a coreceptor for gp42 or gHgL, but the use of gHgL for attachment as well as penetration greatly compromises its ability to mediate entry.

Discoidin domain receptors in disease

Discoidin domain receptors, DDR1 and DDR2, lie at the intersection of two large receptor families, namely the extracellular matrix and tyrosine kinase receptors. As such, DDRs are uniquely positioned to function as sensors for extracellular matrix and to regulate a wide range of cell functions from migration and proliferation to cytokine secretion and extracellular matrix homeostasis/remodeling. While activation of DDRs by extracellular matrix collagens is required for normal development and tissue homeostasis, aberrant activation of these receptors following injury or in disease is detrimental. The availability of mice lacking DDRs has enabled us to identify key roles played by these receptors in disease initiation and progression. DDR1 promotes inflammation in atherosclerosis, lung fibrosis and kidney injury, while DDR2 contributes to osteoarthritis. Furthermore, both DDRs have been implicated in cancer progression. Yet the mechanisms whereby DDRs contribute to disease progression are poorly understood. In this review we highlight the mechanisms whereby DDRs regulate two important processes, namely inflammation and tissue fibrosis. In addition, we discuss the challenges of targeting DDRs in disease. Selective targeting of these receptors requires understanding of how they interact with and are activated by extracellular matrix, and whether their cellular function is dependent on or independent of receptor kinase activity.

Integrin α3β1, a Novel Receptor for α3(IV) Noncollagenous Domain and a Trans-dominant Inhibitor for Integrin αvβ3

Exogenous soluble human α3 noncollagenous (NC1) domain of collagen IV inhibits angiogenesis and tumor growth. These biological functions are attributed to the binding of α3NC1 to integrin αvβ3. However, in some tumor cells that express integrin αvβ3, the α3NC1 domain does not inhibit proliferation, suggesting that integrin αvβ3 expression is not sufficient to mediate the anti-tumorigenic activity of this domain. Therefore, in the present study, we searched for novel binding receptors for the soluble α3NC1 domain in cells lacking αvβ3 integrin. In these cells, soluble α3NC1 bound integrin α3β1; however, unlike αvβ3, α3β1 integrin did not mediate cell adhesion to immobilized α3NC1 domain. Interestingly, in cells lacking integrin α3β1, adhesion to the α3NC1 domain was enhanced due to activation of integrin αvβ3. These findings indicate that integrin α3β1 is a receptor for the α3NC1 domain and transdominantly inhibits integrin αvβ3 activation. Thus integrin α3β1, in conjunction with integrin αvβ3, modulates cellular responses to the α3NC1 domain, which may be pivotal in the mechanism underpinning its anti-angiogenic and anti-tumorigenic activities.

Mutations of Epstein-Barr Virus gH That Are Differentially Able To Support Fusion with B Cells or Epithelial Cells

ABSTRACT The core fusion machinery of all herpesviruses consists of three conserved glycoproteins, gB and gHgL, suggesting a common mechanism for virus cell fusion, but fusion of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) with B cells and epithelial cells is initiated differently. Fusion with B cells requires a fourth protein, gp42, which complexes with gHgL and interacts with HLA class II, the B-cell coreceptor. Fusion with an epithelial cell does not require gp42 but requires interaction of gHgL with a novel epithelial cell coreceptor. Epithelial cell fusion can be inhibited by gp42 binding to gHgL and by antibodies to gH that fail to block B-cell fusion. This suggests that regions of gHgL initiating fusion with each cell are separable from each other and from regions involved in fusion itself. To address this possibility we mapped the region of gH recognized by a monoclonal antibody to gH that blocks EBV fusion with epithelial cells but not B cells by making a series of chimeras with the gH homolog of rhesus lymphocryptovirus. Proteins with mutations engineered within this region included those that preferentially mediate fusion with B cells, those that preferentially mediate fusion with epithelial cells, and those that mediate fusion with neither cell type. These results support the hypothesis that the core fusion function of gH is the same for B cells and epithelial cells and that it differs only in the way in which it is triggered into a functionally active state.

Inhibition of Integrin α2β1 Ameliorates Glomerular Injury

Mesangial cells and podocytes express integrins α1β1 and α2β1, which are the two major collagen receptors that regulate multiple cellular functions, including extracellular matrix homeostasis. Integrin α1β1 protects from glomerular injury by negatively regulating collagen production, but the role of integrin α2β1 in renal injury is unclear. Here, we subjected wild-type and integrin α2-null mice to injury with adriamycin or partial renal ablation. In both of these models, integrin α2-null mice developed significantly less proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis. In addition, selective pharmacological inhibition of integrin α2β1 significantly reduced adriamycin-induced proteinuria, glomerular injury, and collagen deposition in wild-type mice. This inhibitor significantly reduced collagen synthesis in wild-type, but not integrin α2-null, mesangial cells in vitro, demonstrating that its effects are integrin α2β1-dependent. Taken together, these results indicate that integrin α2β1 contributes to glomerular injury by positively regulating collagen synthesis and suggest that its inhibition may be a promising strategy to reduce glomerular injury and proteinuria.

Modification of Collagen IV by Glucose or Methylglyoxal Alters Distinct Mesangial Cell Functions

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) affects both glomerular cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM), yet the pathogenic mechanisms involving cell-matrix interactions are poorly understood. Glycation alters integrin-dependent cell-ECM interactions, and perturbation of these interactions results in severe renal pathology in diabetic animals. Here, we investigated how chemical modifications of the ECM by hyperglycemia and carbonyl stress, two major features of the diabetic milieu, affect mesangial cell functions. Incubation of collagen IV with pathophysiological levels of either the carbonyl compound methylglyoxal (MGO) or glucose resulted in modification of arginine or lysine residues, respectively. Mouse mesangial cells plated on MGO-modified collagen IV showed decreased adhesion and migration. Cells plated on glucose-modified collagen IV showed reduced proliferation and migration and increased collagen IV production. Inhibiting glucose-mediated oxidative modification of collagen IV lysine residues rescued the alterations in cell growth, migration, and collagen synthesis. We propose that diabetic ECM affects mesangial cell functions via two distinct mechanisms: modification of arginine residues by MGO inhibits cell adhesion, whereas oxidative modification of lysine residues by glucose inhibits cell proliferation and increases collagen IV production. These mechanisms may contribute to mesangial cell hypertrophy and matrix expansion in DN.

Integrin α1β1 Regulates Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Activation by Controlling Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ-Dependent Caveolin-1 Expression

ABSTRACT Integrin α1β1 negatively regulates the generation of profibrotic reactive oxygen species (ROS) by inhibiting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activation; however, the mechanism by which it does this is unknown. In this study, we show that caveolin-1 (Cav-1), a scaffolding protein that binds integrins and controls growth factor receptor signaling, participates in integrin α1β1-mediated EGFR activation. Integrin α1-null mesangial cells (MCs) have reduced Cav-1 levels, and reexpression of the integrin α1 subunit increases Cav-1 levels, decreases EGFR activation, and reduces ROS production. Downregulation of Cav-1 in wild-type MCs increases EGFR phosphorylation and ROS synthesis, while overexpression of Cav-1 in the integrin α1-null MCs decreases EGFR-mediated ROS production. We further show that integrin α1-null MCs have increased levels of activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), which leads to reduced activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a transcription factor that positively regulates Cav-1 expression. Moreover, activation of PPARγ or inhibition of ERK increases Cav-1 levels in the integrin α1-null MCs. Finally, we show that glomeruli of integrin α1-null mice have reduced levels of Cav-1 and activated PPARγ but increased levels of phosphorylated EGFR both at baseline and following injury. Thus, integrin α1β1 negatively regulates EGFR activation by positively controlling Cav-1 levels, and the ERK/PPARγ axis plays a key role in regulating integrin α1β1-dependent Cav-1 expression and consequent EGFR-mediated ROS production.