Corinne L. Peek-Asa

Effectiveness of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) in Reducing Robberies

OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) approach in reducing robberies. METHODS CPTED evaluations were obtained through a comprehensive search mechanism. Two sets of inclusion criteria were used: 16 primary studies evaluated a CPTED program with a comparison period; 12 secondary studies presented some evidence of CPTED effects but were not required to have the same level of scientific rigor. The percentage change in pre- and post-intervention events was the outcome examined. Studies were stratified by programs implementing multiple components, a single component, and through ordinances. MAIN RESULTS All primary multiple-component CPTED programs experienced a percentage change in robberies ranging from -84% to -30%. Single-component program effects ranged from -83% to +91%, and ordinances ranged from -65% to +130%. Secondary studies reported robbery changes ranging between -92% and +7.6%. Robbery reductions were larger for interventions comprising basic store design, cash control, and training components compared to those including equipment systems. No associations were found between robbery decreases and either the follow-up period or the number of program components. Studies examining nonfatal injuries found a median pre-post change of -61%; those examining homicides found changes ranging from 0% to +11%. CONCLUSIONS The broad nature of the CPTED approach allows its adaptation to any setting, and results indicate that it is an effective approach to reducing robbery. However, most interventions were not evaluated independently of other factors contributing to robbery risk. More research is needed on individual components and effects in various business settings.

THE EFFECT OF RANDOM ALCOHOL SCREENING IN REDUCING MOTOR VEHICLE CRASH INJURIES

OBJECTIVE Programs that randomly stop drivers to detect alcohol use have been introduced as a deterrence measure for drinking and driving. The objective of this review is to determine if this random screening reduces fatalities and injuries. The two types of random screening programs included are Random Breath Testing and Sobriety Checkpoints. METHODS Fourteen studies met inclusion criteria, which required an evaluation of a random screening program with a control population or baseline comparison. Proportional decreases in total or alcohol-related fatalities or injuries were the outcome of interest. MAIN RESULTS All fourteen studies found that random screening was effective in reducing fatalities and injuries. The decreases found had wide variation, but did not depend on the size of the population. Alcohol-related fatalities generally showed the greatest decreases, ranging from 8% to 71%. The few multivariate analyses showed that random screening significantly reduced crashes and injuries. CONCLUSIONS Random screening appears to be effective in a wide range of both United States and Australian populations. Although there are many limitations to the studies reviewed, such as the difficulty in determining alcohol involvement and the inability to control for the presence of other drunk driving reduction programs, the weight of the evidence indicates that random screening reduces fatalities and injuries. There was some disagreement among studies as to how long the effects of random alcohol screening can be sustained and the level of enforcement necessary, and these remain questions to be answered.

Incidence of non-fatal workplace assault injuries determined from employer's reports in California.

Although fatal work-related assault assault injury rates are routinely reported in the United States, reports of non-fatal injuries are not routinely examined. Non-fatal workplace assault injuries can be reported through many agencies. One of the most common reporting mechanisms in California is the Employers Report of Occupational Illness and Injury. Employers Reports filed from October 1, 1994 through January 31, 1995 in the state of California were the source of workplace assault information for this study. All reports indicating an assault-related injury were identified and characterized by gender and occupation of the victim, type of assault and weapon used, and industry. Annual rates were determined based on the number of estimated annual reports and the civilian working population. The estimated annual rate of workplace assault injuries for California based on Employers Reports is 72.9 per 100,000 workers, which is approximately 50 times the fatal rate. Rates differed by industry, with retail, hospital, transportation and police workers exhibiting the highest rates. Assaults were predominantly Type I, which involve criminal activity, and Type II, which involve an assault by a client, patient, or inmate. The rates of non-fatal work-related assault injury are much greater and have different characteristics than fatal injuries. These non-fatal injury patterns need to be considered when estimating the burden of assault injuries on businesses, and can help identify the most effective prevention strategies.

The prevalence of non-standard helmet use and head injuries among motorcycle riders

OBJECTIVES This study examined the prevalence of non-standard helmet use among motorcycle riders following introduction of a mandatory helmet use law and the prevalence of head injuries among a sample of non-standard helmet users involved in motorcycle crashes. METHODS Motorcycle rider observations were conducted at 29 statewide locations in the 2 years following the introduction of the mandatory helmet use law in January, 1992. Medical records of motorcyclists who were injured in 1992 for whom a crash report was available and for whom medical care was administered in one of 28 hospitals were reviewed. Chi-squares and analysis of variance were used to describe differences between groups. RESULTS Prevalence of non-standard helmet use averaged 10.2%, with a range across observation sites from 0 to 48.0%. Non-standard helmet use varied by type of roadway, day of week, and time of day. Injuries to the head were more frequent and of greater severity among those wearing non-standard helmets than both those wearing no helmet and those wearing standard helmets. CONCLUSIONS Non-standard helmets appear to offer little head protection during a crash. Future study is needed to understand the dynamics leading to head injury when different types of helmets are worn.

GIS Mapping of Earthquake-Related Deaths and Hospital Admissions from the 1994 Northridge, California, Earthquake

PURPOSE Earthquakes pose a persistent but unpredictable health threat. Although knowledge of geologic earthquake hazards for buildings has increased, spatial relations between injuries and seismic activity have not been explained. METHODS Fatal and hospital-admitted earthquake injuries due to the 1994 Northridge Earthquake were identified. Geographical Information Systems software was used to map all injury locations. Injuries were analyzed with regard to distance from the earthquake epicenter, the Modified Mercalli Intensity Index, peak ground acceleration, and proportion of damaged residential buildings. RESULTS Injury severity was inversely related to distance from the epicenter and increased with increasing ground motion and building damage. However, injury incidence and severity were not completely predicted by seismic hazard and building damage, and injuries of all severities occurred in a large geographic area. Average distance to the epicenter was smallest for injuries related to falling building parts and largest for cutting/piercing injuries and falls. CONCLUSIONS The injuries from the Northridge Earthquake extended beyond the areas of highest environmental activity. Factors such as age and activity during the earthquake may be equally important in predicting injury from earthquakes as seismic features.

The role of surveillance and evaluation research in the reduction of violence against workers

BACKGROUND Violence against workers is garnering increased attention as awareness grows of the toll violent events have on workers and work environments. METHODS In this review, we summarize information about surveillance of violent events in the workplace and summarize evaluations of intervention programs to reduce such violence. We describe surveillance programs that nationally collect data, and we compare some data. We summarize two systematic studies of workplace violence-prevention programs: The first study examined evaluations of the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design approach to prevention, and the second examined evaluations of behavioral and administrative interventions. RESULTS Reliable national data sets of worker homicides exist, but case identification and coding problems have yet to be solved. Although the number of workplace homicides has decreased since the mid-1990s, much less is known about the incidence of nonfatal events. The role that prevention programs have played in reducing workplace homicide remains largely unknown because so few evaluations have been conducted. CONCLUSIONS Information about effective methods to reduce violence against workers is needed. Research that evaluates existing prevention programs, especially efforts conducted in a collaborative manner, will be invaluable to shaping effective programs in the future.

Traumatic occupational fatalities in the retail industry, United States 1992-1996

BACKGROUND Retail is a growing economic sector and employs an increasing number of the overall workforce, yet little is known about the incidence and characteristics of work-related deaths in the retail industry. METHODS Workplace deaths were examined using the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries from 1992 through 1996. Occupational fatality rates were calculated by age, gender, and type of establishment, and characteristics of occupational deaths in the retail industry were compared to other industries. RESULTS Liquor stores had the highest work-related fatality rates in the retail industry. The two leading causes of death in the retail industry were violence (69.5%) and motor vehicle crashes (19.3%). Females, younger, minority, and foreign-born workers were more likely to be killed in retail than other industries. Deaths in the retail industry were more likely to be in small businesses, after normal business hours, and in urban settings. DISCUSSION Workers in the retail industry were at lower risk of most types of workplace deaths but had a markedly increased risk of violent death than workers in other industries.

The relationship between socioeconomic factors and gang violence in the City of Los Angeles.

OBJECTIVE To investigate the relationship between community-level socioeconomic factors and the incidence of gang-related homicide in the city of Los Angeles. METHODS An ecological group-level analysis was conducted to correlate the 5-year incidence rates (from 1988 through 1992) of gang-related homicide with community-level socioeconomic statistics for the 18 geographically distinct Los Angeles Police Department divisions. Eight socioeconomic factors were examined: (1) log mean per capita income, (2) proportion employed, (3) proportion high school graduates, (4) proportion single-parent families, (5) proportion male, (6) proportion younger than 20 years of age, (7) proportion African American, and (8) proportion Hispanic. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for the interrelationships among the study variables and gang-related homicide. Adjusted regression estimates were calculated from a multiple linear regression model. RESULTS The overall 5-year gang-related homicide rate for the city was 48.8 per 100,000, with a range of 5.2 to 173.5 per 100,000 among the different Los Angeles Police Department divisions. Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that the strongest negative correlations with gang-related homicide were log mean per capita income and proportion employed, and the strongest positive correlations were proportion single-parent families and proportion younger than 20 years of age. With mutual adjustment of all variables, only log mean per capita income and proportion employed were significantly associated with gang-related homicide. CONCLUSION At the community level, gang-related homicide in Los Angeles is most closely associated with lower income and unemployment. These relationships may provide important insights into the causes of gang formation and gang violence.

Driver Compliance With Stop Signs at Pedestrian Crosswalks on a University Campus

Pedestrians on college campuses interact continuously with various motorized vehicles. Rates of compliance with stop signs at pedestrian crosswalks and noncomplying vehicles were monitored in spring 1996 on a large urban campus. The number of pedestrians, pedestrian clearance, type of vehicle, hour of day, and day of week were monitored at 3 pedestrian crosswalks. The overall compliance rate for stop signs was 22.8 per 100 vehicles, ranging from 1.4 per 100 for bicycles to 46.2 per 100 for commuter vans. Compliance increased to 53 per 100 vehicles when pedestrians were present in the crosswalk. Several differences in compliance rates were found among the observation sites. Lowest compliance was observed for bicycles and motorcycles. Pedestrians on this and other college campuses risk injuries because of violations of pedestrian right-of-way laws. The problem calls for appreciable educational efforts by college health personnel.

Traffic-related injury hospitalizations among California elderly, 1994

Traffic-related injuries among the elderly are a growing concern in most developed and many developing countries. To better understand injuries sustained by the elderly in the traffic environment, hospitalizations for traffic-related injuries among those aged 64 and over in California in 1994 were examined to determine incidence and characterize injuries. Both injury incidence and injury severity increased as age increased over 64. Males were more likely to be injured as drivers of motor vehicles, but females were more likely to be injured as passengers. Fractures and internal injuries represented 72.3% of all primary diagnoses, and total hospital charges exceeded