Cornelius Krasel

GABA and glycine in synaptic vesicles: storage and transport characteristics

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine are major inhibitory neurotransmitters that are released from nerve terminals by exocytosis via synaptic vesicles. Here we report that synaptic vesicles immunoisolated from rat cerebral cortex contain high amounts of GABA in addition to glutamate. Synaptic vesicles from the rat medulla oblongata also contain glycine and exhibit a higher GABA and a lower glutamate concentration than cortical vesicles. No other amino acids were detected. In addition, the uptake activities of synaptic vesicles for GABA and glycine were compared. Both were very similar with respect to substrate affinity and specificity, bioenergetic properties, and regional distribution. We conclude that GABA, glycine, and glutamate are the only major amino acid neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles and that GABA and glycine are transported by similar, if not identical, transporters.

μ-opioid receptors: correlation of agonist efficacy for signalling with ability to activate internalization.

We have compared the ability of a number of μ-opioid receptor (MOPr) ligands to activate G proteins with their abilities to induce MOPr phosphorylation, to promote association of arrestin-3 and to cause MOPr internalization. For a model of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) activation where all agonists stabilize a single active conformation of the receptor, a close correlation between signaling outputs might be expected. Our results show that overall there is a very good correlation between efficacy for G protein activation and arrestin-3 recruitment, whereas a few agonists, in particular endomorphins 1 and 2, display apparent bias toward arrestin recruitment. The agonist-induced phosphorylation of MOPr at Ser375, considered a key step in MOPr regulation, and agonist-induced internalization of MOPr were each found to correlate well with arrestin-3 recruitment. These data indicate that for the majority of MOPr agonists the ability to induce receptor phosphorylation, arrestin-3 recruitment, and internalization can be predicted from their ability as agonists to activate G proteins. For the prototypic MOPr agonist morphine, its relatively weak ability to induce MOPr internalization can be explained by its low agonist efficacy.

Agonist-selective, Receptor-specific Interaction of Human P2Y Receptors with β-Arrestin-1 and -2

Interaction of G-protein-coupled receptors with β-arrestins is an important step in receptor desensitization and in triggering “alternative” signals. By means of confocal microscopy and fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we have investigated the internalization of the human P2Y receptors 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, and 12 and their interaction with β-arrestin-1 and -2. Co-transfection of each individual P2Y receptor with β-arrestin-1-GFP or β-arrestin-2-YFP into HEK-293 cells and stimulation with the corresponding agonists resulted in a receptor-specific interaction pattern. The P2Y1 receptor stimulated with ADP strongly translocated β-arrestin-2-YFP, whereas only a slight translocation was observed for β-arrestin-1-GFP. The P2Y4 receptor exhibited equally strong translocation for β-arrestin-1-GFP and β-arrestin-2-YFP when stimulated with UTP. The P2Y6, P2Y11, and P2Y12 receptor internalized only when GRK2 was additionally co-transfected, but β-arrestin translocation was only visible for the P2Y6 and P2Y11 receptor. The P2Y2 receptor showed a β-arrestin translocation pattern that was dependent on the agonist used for stimulation. UTP translocated β-arrestin-1-GFP and β-arrestin-2-YFP equally well, whereas ATP translocated β-arrestin-1-GFP to a much lower extent than β-arrestin-2-YFP. The same agonist-dependent pattern was seen in fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments between the fluorescently labeled P2Y2 receptor and β-arrestins. Thus, the P2Y2 receptor would be classified as a class A receptor when stimulated with ATP or as a class B receptor when stimulated with UTP. The ligand-specific recruitment of β-arrestins by ATP and UTP stimulation of P2Y2 receptors was further found to result in differential stimulation of ERK phosphorylation. This suggests that the two different agonists induce distinct active states of this receptor that show differential interactions with β-arrestins.

Endomorphin-2: A Biased Agonist at the μ-Opioid Receptor

Previously we correlated the efficacy for G protein activation with that for arrestin recruitment for a number of agonists at the μ-opioid receptor (MOPr) stably expressed in HEK293 cells. We suggested that the endomorphins (endomorphin-1 and -2) might be biased toward arrestin recruitment. In the present study, we investigated this phenomenon in more detail for endomorphin-2, using endogenous MOPr in rat brain as well as MOPr stably expressed in HEK293 cells. For MOPr in neurons in brainstem locus ceruleus slices, the peptide agonists [d-Ala2,N-Me-Phe4,Gly5-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO) and endomorphin-2 activated inwardly rectifying K+ current in a concentration-dependent manner. Analysis of these responses with the operational model of pharmacological agonism confirmed that endomorphin-2 had a much lower operational efficacy for G protein-mediated responses than did DAMGO at native MOPr in mature neurons. However, endomorphin-2 induced faster desensitization of the K+ current than did DAMGO. In addition, in HEK293 cells stably expressing MOPr, the ability of endomorphin-2 to induce phosphorylation of Ser375 in the COOH terminus of the receptor, to induce association of arrestin with the receptor, and to induce cell surface loss of receptors was much more efficient than would be predicted from its efficacy for G protein-mediated signaling. Together, these results indicate that endomorphin-2 is an arrestin-biased agonist at MOPr and the reason for this is likely to be the ability of endomorphin-2 to induce greater phosphorylation of MOPr than would be expected from its ability to activate MOPr and to induce activation of G proteins.

Visualization of Agonist-induced Association and Trafficking of Green Fluorescent Protein-tagged Forms of Both β-Arrestin-1 and the Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone Receptor-1

A fusion protein (β-arrestin-1-green fluorescent protein (GFP)) was constructed between β-arrestin-1 and a modified form of the green fluorescent protein from Aequorea victoria. Expression in HEK293 cells allowed immunological detection of an 82-kDa cytosolic polypeptide with antisera to both β-arrestin-1 and GFP. Transient expression of this construct in HEK293 cells stably transfected to express the rat thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor-1 (TRHR-1) followed by confocal microscopy allowed its visualization evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Addition of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) caused a profound and rapid redistribution of β-arrestin-1-GFP to the plasma membrane followed by internalization of β-arrestin-1-GFP into distinct, punctate, intracellular vesicles. TRH did not alter the cellular distribution of GFP transiently transfected into these cells nor the distribution of β-arrestin-1-GFP following expression in HEK293 cells lacking the receptor. To detect potential co-localization of the receptor and β-arrestin-1 in response to agonist treatment, β-arrestin-1-GFP was expressed stably in HEK293 cells. A vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-tagged TRHR-1 was then introduced transiently. Initially, the two proteins were fully resolved. Short term exposure to TRH resulted in their plasma membrane co-localization, and sustained exposure to TRH resulted in their co-localization in punctate, intracellular vesicles. In contrast, β-arrestin-1-GFP did not relocate or adopt a punctate appearance in cells that did not express VSV-TRHR-1. Reciprocal experiments were performed, with equivalent results, following transient expression of β-arrestin-1 into cells stably expressing VSVTRHR-1-GFP. These results demonstrate the capacity of β-arrestin-1-GFP to interact with the rat TRHR-1 and directly visualizes their recruitment from cytoplasm and plasma membrane respectively into overlapping, intracellular vesicles in an agonist-dependent manner.

An RNA molecule that specifically inhibits G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 in vitro

G-protein-coupled receptors are desensitized by a two-step process. In a first step, G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) phosphorylate agonist-activated receptors that subsequently bind to a second class of proteins, the arrestins. GRKs can be classified into three subfamilies, which have been implicated in various diseases. The physiological role(s) of GRKs have been difficult to study as selective inhibitors are not available. We have used SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) to develop RNA aptamers that potently and selectively inhibit GRK2. This process has yielded an aptamer, C13, which bound to GRK2 with a high affinity and inhibited GRK2-catalyzed rhodopsin phosphorylation with an IC50 of 4.1 nM. Phosphorylation of rhodopsin catalyzed by GRK5 was also inhibited, albeit with 20-fold lower potency (IC50 of 79 nM). Furthermore, C13 reveals significant specificity, since almost no inhibitory activity was detectable testing it against a panel of 14 other kinases. The aptamer is two orders of magnitude more potent than the best GRK2 inhibitors described previously and shows high selectivity for the GRK family of protein kinases.

Evidence that GABA ρ subunits contribute to functional ionotropic GABA receptors in mouse cerebellar Purkinje cells

Ionotropic γ‐amino butyric acid (GABA) receptors composed of heterogeneous molecular subunits are major mediators of inhibitory responses in the adult CNS. Here, we describe a novel ionotropic GABA receptor in mouse cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) using agents reported to have increased affinity for ρ subunit‐containing GABAC over other GABA receptors. Exogenous application of the GABAC‐preferring agonist cis‐4‐aminocrotonic acid (CACA) evoked whole‐cell currents in PCs, whilst equimolar concentrations of GABA evoked larger currents. CACA‐evoked currents had a greater sensitivity to the selective GABAC antagonist (1,2,5,6‐tetrahydropyridin‐4‐yl)methylphosphinic acid (TPMPA) than GABA‐evoked currents. Focal application of agonists produced a differential response profile; CACA‐evoked currents displayed a much more pronounced attenuation with increasing distance from the PC soma, displayed a slower time‐to‐peak and exhibited less desensitization than GABA‐evoked currents. However, CACA‐evoked currents were also completely blocked by bicuculline, a selective agent for GABAA receptors. Thus, we describe a population of ionotropic GABA receptors with a mixed GABAA/GABAC pharmacology. TPMPA reduced inhibitory synaptic transmission at interneurone–Purkinje cell (IN–PC) synapses, causing clear reductions in miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) amplitude and frequency. Combined application of NO‐711 (a selective GABA transporter subtype 1 (GAT‐1) antagonist) and SNAP‐5114 (a GAT‐(2)/3/4 antagonist) induced a tonic GABA conductance in PCs; however, TPMPA had no effect on this current. Immunohistochemical studies suggest that ρ subunits are expressed predominantly in PC soma and proximal dendritic compartments with a lower level of expression in more distal dendrites; this selective immunoreactivity contrasted with a more uniform distribution of GABAAα1 subunits in PCs. Finally, co‐immunoprecipitation studies suggest that ρ subunits can form complexes with GABAA receptor α1 subunits in the cerebellar cortex. Overall, these data suggest that ρ subunits contribute to functional ionotropic receptors that mediate a component of phasic inhibitory GABAergic transmission at IN–PC synapses in the cerebellum.

Dual Role of the β2-Adrenergic Receptor C Terminus for the Binding of β-Arrestin and Receptor Internalization

Homologous desensitization of β2-adrenergic and other G-protein-coupled receptors is a two-step process. After phosphorylation of agonist-occupied receptors by G-protein-coupled receptor kinases, they bind β-arrestins, which triggers desensitization and internalization of the receptors. Because it is not known which regions of the receptor are recognized by β-arrestins, we have investigated β-arrestin interaction and internalization of a set of mutants of the human β2-adrenergic receptor. Mutation of the four serine/threonine residues between residues 355 and 364 led to the loss of agonist-induced receptor-β-arrestin2 interaction as revealed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), translocation of β-arrestin2 to the plasma membrane, and receptor internalization. Mutation of all seven serine/threonine residues distal to residue 381 did not affect agonist-induced receptor internalization and β-arrestin2 translocation. A β2-adrenergic receptor truncated distal to residue 381 interacted normally with β-arrestin2, whereas its ability to internalize in an agonist-dependent manner was compromised. A similar impairment of internalization was observed when only the last eight residues of the C terminus were deleted. Our experiments show that the C terminus distal to residue 381 does not affect the initial interaction between receptor and β-arrestin, but its last eight amino acids facilitate receptor internalization in concert with β-arrestin2.

Mutations of Tyr326 in the β2-adrenoceptor disrupt multiple receptor functions

Abstract A tyrosine residue at the cytoplasmic end of the seventh transmembrane helix is conserved in many G-protein-coupled receptors. In the human β2-adrenoceptor, this tyrosine (Tyr326) has been proposed to be a specific determinant for agonist-induced receptor sequestration. In order to probe its contribution to the sequestration process we have replaced this tyrosine by alanine (Y326A) or phenylalanine (Y326F). Wild-type and mutant receptors were stably expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Agonist-induced sequestration was essentially abolished in Y326A receptors and only slightly reduced in Y326F receptors. However, cells expressing Y326A receptors displayed a high percentage of internal receptors under basal conditions while cells expressing wild-type receptors did not. In addition, high-affinity agonist binding and the ability to activate adenylyl cyclase were markedly reduced in Y326A receptors and slightly reduced in Y326F receptors. We conclude that Tyr326 is required for the functional integrity of the β2-adrenoceptor and that it may be involved in multiple agonist-induced effects.

Improved Fluorescent Proteins for Single-Molecule Research in Molecular Tracking and Co-Localization

Three promising variants of autofluorescent proteins have been analyzed photophysically for their proposed use in single-molecule microscopy studies in living cells to compare their superiority to other fluorescent proteins previously reported regarding the number of photons emitted. The first variant under investigation the F46L mutant of eYFP has a 10% greater photon emission rate and > 50% slower photobleaching rate on average than the standard eYFP fluorophore. The monomeric red fluorescent protein (mRFP) has a fivefold lower photon emission rate, likely due to the monomeric content, and also a tenfold faster photobleaching rate than the DsRed fluorescent protein. In contrast, the previously reported eqfp611 has a 50% lower emission rate yet photobleaches more than a factor 2 slowly. We conclude that the F46L YFP and the eqfp611 are superior new options for single molecule imaging and tracking studies in living cells. Studies were also performed on the effects of forced quenching of multiple fluorescent proteins in sub-micrometer regions that would show the effects of dimerization at low concentration levels of fluorescent proteins and also indicate corrections to stoichiometry patterns with fluorescent proteins previously in print. We also introduce properties at the single molecule level of new FRET pairs with combinations of fluorescent proteins and artificial fluorophores.