Craig R. Hall

Imagery ability and the acquisition and retention of movements

In this study, we examined the relationship between imagery ability, as measured by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ), and the acquisition, retention, and reacquisition of movements. Based on their MIQ scores, 10 subjects were selected for the following imagery groups: high visual/high kinesthetic (HH), high visual/low kinesthetic (HL), and low visual/low kinesthetic (LL). The subjects learned four movements to a criterion level. Before each trial, subjects kinesthetically imaged the movement about to be produced. Following each acquisition trial, subjects were provided visual feedback. The acquisition phase was followed by a 2-day retention interval, a retention test consisting of three trials on each movement (no feedback provided), and a reacquisition phase. The HH group acquired the movements in the least number of trials, the LL group required the greatest number of trials, and the HL group required an intermediate number of trials. The data for the reacquisition phase showed the same trend. There was only weak evidence for a relationship between imagery ability and the retention of the movements. These findings support the position that high imagery ability facilitates the acquisition, but probably not the short term retention, of movements.

The relationship between competitive anxiety and imagery use

Abstract Imagery has been proposed to be an effective strategy for controlling levels of competitive anxiety, but little b known about how imagery functions to achieve this. This study explored the relationship between imagery use. imagery ability. competitive anxiety and performance. Fifty-seven Junior North American Roller Skating Championship competitors completed the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 (CSAI-2). Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery to be predictors of cognitive state anxiety. Visual imagery ability also predicted somatic state anxiety. while motivational mastery imagery was a predictor of self-confidence. With respect to the relationship between imagery use and imagery ability, high imagery ability was associated with higher imagery use. Finally, self-confidence and kinesthetic imagery ability scores correctly c...

Exercise motivation: a cross-sectional analysis examining its relationships with frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise

BackgroundIt is important to engage in regular physical activity in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle however a large portion of the population is insufficiently active. Understanding how different types of motivation contribute to exercise behavior is an important first step in identifying ways to increase exercise among individuals. The current study employs self-determination theory as a framework from which to examine how motivation contributes to various characteristics of exercise behavior.MethodsRegular exercisers (N = 1079; n = 468 males; n = 612 females) completed inventories which assessed the frequency, intensity, and duration with which they exercise, as well as the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire including four additional items assessing integrated regulation.ResultsBivariate correlations revealed that all three behavioral indices (frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise) were more highly correlated with more autonomous than controlling regulations. Regression analyses revealed that integrated and identified regulations predicted exercise frequency for males and females. Integrated regulation was found to be the only predictor of exercise duration across both genders. Finally, introjected regulation predicted exercise intensity for females only.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that exercise regulations that vary in their degree of internalization can differentially predict characteristics of exercise behavior. Furthermore, in the motivational profile of a regular exerciser, integrated regulation appears to be an important determinant of exercise behavior. These results highlight the importance of assessing integrated regulation in exercise settings where the goal of understanding motivated behavior has important health implications.

The MIQ-RS: A Suitable Option for Examining Movement Imagery Ability.

Within rehabilitation settings, mental imagery helps to promote long-term recovery and facilitates compliance to rehabilitation exercises. Individuals who are able to effectively engage in imagery practice are likely to gain the most benefit from imagery training. Thus, a suitable imagery ability measurement tool for individuals with movement limitations is needed. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the Movement Imagery Questionnaire—Revised second version (MIQ-RS), and compare the results of this new version with Hall and Martins (1997) MIQ-R. Three-hundred and twenty participants from a variety of sports and performance levels agreed to take part. Results showed the internal consistency and test–retest reliability of the MIQ-RS were satisfactory, the two-factor structure of the MIQ-RS was supported by confirmatory factor analysis, and Pearson correlations indicated a strong relationship between the MIQ-R and MIQ-RS. It appears the MIQ-RS is a suitable option for examining movement imagery ability primarily aimed at the upper extremity.

Task and scheduling self-efficacy as predictors of exercise behavior

Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1995, 1997) has figured prominently among social psychological approaches taken to the investigation of exercise behavior. The present study validated two measures of self-efficacy (scheduling and task) through confirmatory factor analytic procedures. In a separate study, the resultant factors were then used as independent variables in the prediction of exercise behavior and behavioral intention in a structural equation model. Task self-efficacy was found to be more related to behavioral intention than scheduling self-efficacy. Scheduling self-efficacy was found to be more related to behavior than task self-efficacy or behavioral intention. Results support different types and motivational functions of self-efficacy for exercise intentions and behavior.

The Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised, Second Edition (MIQ-RS) Is a Reliable and Valid Tool for Evaluating Motor Imagery in Stroke Populations

Mental imagery can improve motor performance in stroke populations when combined with physical therapy. Valid and reliable instruments to evaluate the imagery ability of stroke survivors are needed to maximize the benefits of mental imagery therapy. The purposes of this study were to: examine and compare the test-retest intra-rate reliability of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised, Second Edition (MIQ-RS) in stroke survivors and able-bodied controls, examine internal consistency of the visual and kinesthetic items of the MIQ-RS, determine if the MIQ-RS includes both the visual and kinesthetic dimensions of mental imagery, correlate impairment and motor imagery scores, and investigate the criterion validity of the MIQ-RS in stroke survivors by comparing the results to the KVIQ-10. Test-retest analysis indicated good levels of reliability (ICC range: .83–.99) and internal consistency (Cronbach α: .95–.98) of the visual and kinesthetic subscales in both groups. The two-factor structure of the MIQ-RS was supported by factor analysis, with the visual and kinesthetic components accounting for 88.6% and 83.4% of the total variance in the able-bodied and stroke groups, respectively. The MIQ-RS is a valid and reliable instrument in the stroke population examined and able-bodied populations and therefore useful as an outcome measure for motor imagery ability.

Imagery use by injured athletes : A qualitative analysis

Abstract The purpose of this study was to expand our knowledge and increase our understanding of imagery use by athletes in sport-injury rehabilitation using a qualitative approach. The participants were 10 injured athletes who were receiving physiotherapy at the time they were interviewed. During the interviews, the athletes provided extensive information about their use of imagery during injury rehabilitation and it was clear that they believed imagery served cognitive, motivational and healing purposes in effectively rehabilitating an injury. Cognitive imagery was used to learn and properly perform the rehabilitation exercises. They employed motivational imagery for goal setting (e.g. imagined being fully recovered) and to enhance mental toughness, help maintain concentration and foster a positive attitude. Imagery was used to manage pain. The methods they employed for controlling pain included using imagery to practise dealing with expected pain, using imagery as a distraction, imagining the pain dispersing, and using imagery to block the pain. With respect to what they imaged (i.e. the content of their imagery), they employed both visual and kinaesthetic imagery and their images tended to be positive and accurate. It was concluded that the implementation of imagery alongside physical rehabilitation should enhance the rehabilitation experience and, therefore, facilitate the recovery rates of injured athletes. Moreover, it was recommended that those responsible for the treatment of injured athletes (e.g. medical doctors, physiotherapists) should understand the benefits of imagery in athletic injury rehabilitation, since it is these practitioners who are in the best position to encourage injured athletes to use imagery.

Exercise imagery: Its nature and measurement

Abstract The lack of research on imagery use by exercisers and the success of imagery use by athletes—for both motivational and cognitive functions—highlights the need to examine imagery use by exercisers. Thus, the general purpose of the present research was to (a) examine the nature of exercise imagery and (b) develop a questionnaire to assess exercise imagery. To this end three research phases were undertaken. Phase 1 examined the nature of imagery use by exercisers and Phases 2 and 3 involved the development and psychometric analysis of the Exercise Imagery Questionnaire-Aerobic Version (EIQ-AV). Results of Phase 1 revealed that 75.7% of the exercisers (N = 144) reported using exercise imagery for both motivational (e.g., goal attainment and psychological management) and cognitive (e.g., performance enhancement and learning) purposes. In Phases 2 and 3, the psychometric analysis of the EIQ-AV revealed three factors (i.e., Energy, Appearance, and Technique) with adequate internal consistency estimates....

A prospective study of physician-observed concussions during junior ice hockey: implications for incidence rates.

OBJECT The objective of this study was to measure the incidence of concussion (scaled relative to number of athlete exposures) and recurrent concussion within 2 teams of fourth-tier junior ice hockey players (16-21 years old) during 1 regular season. METHODS A prospective cohort study called the Hockey Concussion Education Project was conducted during 1 junior ice hockey regular season (2009-2010) involving 67 male fourth-tier ice hockey players (mean age 18.2 ± 1.2 years, range 16-21 years) from 2 teams. Prior to the start of the season, every player underwent baseline assessments using the Sideline Concussion Assessment Tool 2 (SCAT2) and the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test (ImPACT). The study protocol also required players who entered the study during the season to complete baseline SCAT2 and ImPACT testing. If the protocol was not followed, the postinjury test results of a player without true baseline test results would be compared against previously established age and gender group normative levels. Each regular season game was observed by a qualified physician and at least 1 other neutral nonphysician observer. Players who suffered a suspected concussion were evaluated at the game. If a concussion diagnosis was made, the player was subsequently examined in the physicians office for a full clinical evaluation and the SCAT2 and ImPACT were repeated. Based on these evaluations, players were counseled on the decision of when to return to play. Athlete exposure was defined as 1 game played by 1 athlete. RESULTS Twenty-one concussions occurred during the 52 physician-observed games (incidence 21.5 concussions per 1000 athlete exposures). Five players experienced repeat concussions. No concussions were reported during practice sessions. A concussion was diagnosed by the physician in 19 (36.5%) of the 52 observed games. One of the 5 individuals who suffered a repeat concussion sustained his initial concussion in a regular season game that was not observed by a physician, and as a result this single case was not included in the total of 21 total concussions. This initial concussion of the player was identified during baseline testing 2 days after the injury and was subsequently medically diagnosed and treated. CONCLUSIONS The incidence of game-related concussions (per 100 [corrected] athlete exposures) in these fourth-tier junior [corrected] ice hockey players was 7 [corrected] times higher than [corrected] previously reported in the literature. This difference may be the result of the use of standardized direct physician observation, diagnosis, and subsequent treatment. The results of this study demonstrate the need for follow-up studies involving larger and more diverse sample groups to reflect generalizability of the findings. These follow-up studies should involve other contact sports (for example football and rugby) and also include the full spectrum of gender, age, and skill levels.

Evidence for a Multidimensional Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale

This series of three studies considers the multidimensionality of exercise self-efficacy by examining the psychometric characteristics of an instrument designed to assess three behavioral subdomains: task, scheduling, and coping. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis revealed the expected factor structure in a sample of 395 students. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed these results in a second sample of 282 students. In Study 2, the generalizability of the factor structure was confirmed with CFA in a randomly selected sample of 470 community adults, and discriminant validity was supported by theoretically consistent distinctions among exercisers and nonexercisers. In Study 3, change in self-efficacy in conjunction with adoption of novel exercise was examined in a sample of 58 women over 12 weeks. Observed changes in the three self-efficacy domains appeared to be relatively independent. Together, the three studies support a multidimensional conceptualization of exercise self-efficacy that can be assessed and appears to be sensitive to change in exercise behavior.