Cristián Bonacic

Disparate phylogeographic patterns of molecular genetic variation in four closely related South American small cat species

Tissue specimens from four species of Neotropical small cats (Oncifelis geoffroyi, N = 38; O. guigna, N = 6; Leopardus tigrinus, N = 32; Lynchailurus colocolo, N = 22) collected from throughout their distribution were examined for patterns of DNA sequence variation using three mitochondrial genes, 16S rRNA, ATP8, and NADH‐5. Patterns between and among O. guigna and O. geoffroyi individuals were assessed further from size variation at 20 microsatellite loci. Phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial DNA sequences revealed monophyletic clustering of the four species, plus evidence of natural hybridization between L. tigrinus and L. colocolo in areas of range overlap and discrete population subdivisions reflecting geographical isolation. Several commonly accepted subspecies partitions were affirmed for L. colocolo, but not for O. geoffroyi. The lack of geographical substructure in O. geoffroyi was recapitulated with the microsatellite data, as was the monophyletic clustering of O. guigna and O. geoffroyi individuals. L. tigrinus forms two phylogeographic clusters which correspond to L.t. oncilla (from Costa Rica) and L.t. guttula (from Brazil) and which have mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genetic distance estimates comparable to interspecific values between other ocelot lineage species. Using feline‐specific calibration rates for mitochondrial DNA mutation rates, we estimated that extant lineages of O. guigna diverged 0.4 million years ago (Ma), compared with 1.7 Ma for L. colocolo, 2.0 Ma for O. geoffroyi, and 3.7 Ma for L. tigrinus.

Invasive American mink Mustela vison in wetlands of the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, southern Chile: what are they eating?

This article discusses invasive American mink Mustela vison and its ecological effect in wetlands of the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, southern Chile.

Sistemática, taxonomía y domesticación de alpacas y llamas: nueva evidencia cromosómica y molecular

Four camelid species exist in South America: two wild, the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and the vicuna (Vicugna vicugna), and two domestic, the alpaca (Lama pacos) and the llama (Lama glama). However, the origin of the domestic species has been a matter of debate. In the present study, variations in chromosome G banding patterns and in two mitochondrial gene sequences have been used to study the origin and classification of the llama and alpaca. Similar patterns in chromosome G band structure were observed in all four Lamini species, and these in turn were similar to the bands described for camels, Camelus bactrianus. However, fine and consistent differences were found in the short arms of chromosome 1, separating camels, guanacos and llamas from vicunas and alpacas. This pattern was consistent even in a hybrid guanaco x alpaca. Equivalent relationship

Mitochondrial DNA variation and systematics of the Guanaco (Lama Guanicoe, Artiodactyla: Camelidae)

Abstract Guanacos (Lama guanicoe) are the most important native herbivorous species in the South American steppes and the dominant ungulate in a fauna rich in rodents but poor in large mammal species. Between 2 and 4 subspecies are usually recognized within Lama guanicoe, based on subtle morphological differences and geographic distribution. To evaluate whether molecular variation is consistent with the latter hypotheses, we analyzed the complete cytochrome-b and partial control region mitochondrial DNA sequences of L. guanicoe from 22 localities in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. Sequence analyses of both genes support the monophyly of the species but failed to distinguish the occurrence of subspecies along the geographic range. Despite that, the northernmost populations (Peru and northern Chile) showed some degree of genetic differentiation with respect to southern representatives from Argentina, Bolivia, and rest of Chile. Analysis of genetic diversity also showed a strong signal of past low population size and a recent population expansion.

Phylogeography and Subspecies Assessment of Vicuñas in Chile and Bolivia Utilizing mtDNA and Microsatellite Markers: Implications for Vicuña Conservation and Management

The rearing and maintenance of wildvicuñas in semi-captivity for economicutilization is practiced mainly in Peru, butArgentina, Bolivia, and Chile are quicklydeveloping their own programs of economic use. Large scale rearing practices will likelyisolate populations and may foster selectivebreeding. In addition to these concerns, thereare also uncertainties about the distributionand validity of the currently recognizedsubspecies. To better understand the potentialimpact that economic utilization will have onthe vicuña, we describe the moleculargenetic variation among four populations andboth described subspecies. An analysis of 794~bp of mitochondrial DNA sequences (16s,cytochrome b genes, and mtDNA control region)revealed appreciable genetic diversity, low tomoderate levels of genetic differentiation, andrestricted gene flow with isolation by distanceamong populations. Analysis of microsatellitedata also indicated genetic differentiationamong populations. Past climatic and geologicevents, coupled with human history, have likelysubjected the vicuña to various episodes ofpopulation isolation and admixture. Therefore,we suggest that managers aim to ensure geneflow among adjoining populations, as observedat mtDNA and microsatellite loci, as well asmaintaining apparent restricted gene flow withisolation by distance among populationsseparated by great distances. Intensiverearing procedures like those being practicedin Peru will ultimately disrupt movements andmigration among wild populations. Furthermore,animals that are not exposed to predation byremaining inside fences, may overtime, loseportions of their behavioral repertoire thatenable them to recognize potentially dangeroussounds associated with the presence ofpredators. Therefore, we do not recommend thatanimals be placed behind fences as this couldlead to a loss of genetic and behavioraldiversity as well as halting natural ecologicalprocesses. If, however, vicuñas are placedbehind fences for commercial purposes (withlittle or no regard for the retention ofgenetic, and/or behavioral diversity as well asnatural population processes) then we suggestclose genetic monitoring of animals that are(will be) maintained in captivity.

Conservation challenges for the austral and neotropical America section.

The Austral and Neotropical America (ANA) section of the Society for Conservation Biology includes a vast territory with some of the largest relatively pristine ecosystems in the world. With more than 573 million people, the economic growth of the region still depends strongly on natural resource exploitation and still has high rates of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss. A survey among the ANA section membership, with more than 700 members, including most of the sections prominent ecologists and conservationists, indicates that lack of capacity building for conservation, corruption, and threats such as deforestation and illegal trade of species, are among the most urgent problems that need to be addressed to improve conservation in the region. There are, however, strong universities and ecology groups taking the lead in environmental research and conservation, a most important issue to enhance the ability of the region to solve conservation and development conflicts.

Relationship between fragmentation, degradation and native and exotic species richness in an Andean temperate forest of Chile

Impactos humanos tales como la fragmentacion y degradacion de bosques pueden tener fuertes efectos en las comunidades de especies vegetales nativas y exoticas. Ademas, perturbaciones antropicas ocurren principalmente en menores altitudes produciendo mayores grados de fragmentacion y degradacion que en mayores altitudes. La invasion de plantas exoticas deberia ser mayor en bosques mas fragmentados o degradados y, por lo tanto, en menores altitudes dentro de un tipo de bosque o piso altitudinal. En cambio, la riqueza de especies nativas deberia ser negativamente afectada por la fragmentacion y degradacion, encontrandose mayor riqueza en mayores altitudes dentro de un tipo de bosque determinado. En este trabajo evaluamos estas hipotesis en un bosque templado andino de la Region de la Araucania, Chile. Registramos la composicion de plantas vasculares en doce fragmentos de diferente tamano, razon perimetro/area, altitud y degradacion antropica (cortas, incendios, fecas de ganado). En base a estas variables construimos un indice de fragmentacion y uno de degradacion para estos fragmentos. Se analizaron las relaciones entre estas variables a traves de correlaciones de Pearson. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la fragmentacion y degradacion estan positivamente relacionadas y que ambos tipos de perturbacion ocurren en altitudes mas bajas del tipo de bosque estudiado. Ademas, la fragmentacion y degradacion estan afectando en diferente forma a la riqueza de especies nativas y exoticas. La invasion se incremento como consecuencia tanto de fragmentacion como de degradacion, y como consecuencia del patron de distribucion altitudinal de estas perturbaciones, la invasion aparentemente ocurre principalmente en zonas bajas. En cambio, la riqueza de especies nativas fue negativamente afectada solo por la fragmentacion, y no se relaciono con la degradacion interna de los bosques ni con la altitud.

Rufous-legged Owl (Strix rufipes) and Austral Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium nanum) stand use in a gradient of disrupted and old growth Andean temperate forests, Chile

We studied how human induced structural changes in forests affect stand use of the Rufous-legged Owl (forest-specialist) and the Austral Pygmy Owl (forest-facultative), in a gradient from lowland disrupted forests to protected Andean forests in Chile. We also tested if the calls of one species influenced the calling behaviour of the other. We detected a total of 34 Rufous-legged Owls and 21 Austral Pygmy Owls during the four seasons. Rufous-legged Owls were found principally in old growth Araucaria-Nothofagus stands (32.4%), and Pygmy Owls in old growth evergreen stands (52.4%). For both species there was a seasonal effect on call response, with a drop in responses in autumn and winter. Our models suggested that Rufous-legged Owls inhabit a more specific range of habitat characteristics than Pygmy Owls. The former selected stands with tall trees, relatively low tree density, and high bamboo density. Pygmy Owls selected stands with tall trees and relatively high tree density. There was no evidence that either species influenced the calling behaviour of the other, suggesting no negative association between use of a territory by the two species. Our results emphasize the importance of structural components of old growth forests for both species, but also the relevance of stands surrounding protected areas. Estudiamos cómo los cambios estructurales en el bosque, inducidos por el ser humano, afectan el uso de hábitat del concón (especialista de bosque) y del chuncho (facultativo de bosque), en un gradiente desde bosques perturbados en zonas bajas hasta bosques andinos protegidos de Chile. También evaluamos si los llamados de una especie influencian el comportamiento de vocalización de la otra. Detectamos un total de 34 concones y 21 chunchos para las cuatro estaciones del año. Los concones fueron registrados principalmente en bosques antiguos de Araucaria-Nothofagus (32.4%), y los chunchos en bosques antiguos siempre-verdes (52.4%). Para ambas especies hubo una disminución de la actividad en otoño e invierno. Nuestros modelos sugirieron que el concón tiene requerimientos de hábitat más específicos que el chuncho. El concón seleccionó bosques con árboles altos y en baja densidad relativa, y una alta densidad de quila. Por su parte, el chuncho seleccionó bosques con árboles altos y en alta densidad relativa. No hubo evidencia de que los llamados de una especie afectaran las respuestas de la otra, sugiriendo que no existe una asociación negativa en el uso de un mismo territorio por ellas. Los resultados enfatizan la importancia de los elementos estructurales de los bosques antiguos para ambas especies pero, a su vez, la relevancia de los bosques periféricos a áreas protegidas.

Güiña (Leopardus guigna) preys on cavity-nesting nestlings

1Fauna Australis Wildlife Laboratory, Department of Ecosystem and Environment, School of Agricultural and Forests Sciences, Pontifi cia Universidad Católica de Chile. CP 7820436, Chile 2The Peregrine Fund, 5668 W Flying Hawk Lane, ID 83709, Boise, Idaho, USA 3Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611-0430, USA 4National Forestry Service (CONAF), Protected Areas Management, Department of Biodiversity Conservation. CP 8330407, Chile *Corresponding author: taaltami@uc.cl

VARIACION ESTACIONAL DE LA FLORA Y VEGETACION EN LA PRECORDILLERA ANDINA DE LA COMUNA DE PUTRE (I REGION DE TARAPACA, CHILE) DURANTE EL PERIODO 2002-2003

La precordillera de la I Region de Chile (18o 15´S _ 69o 33´W) es una franja que recibe efectos tanto del adyacente desierto ubicado hacia el poniente a menor altitud, como del Altiplano, el piso superior con el cual limita hacia el oriente. La vegetacion en el area presenta, en consecuencia, una variacion altitudinal, donde la precordillera se ubica en el segundo de cuatro pisos denominado comunmente tolar o estepa arbustiva pre-altiplanica (sensu Gajardo). En esta zona 10 parcelas fueron muestreadas mediante el uso de transectos, en cuatro trabajos en terreno durante el ano 2002 y 2003. En ellas se investigo acerca de las formas de vida, cobertura vegetal absoluta y relativa, diversidad y riqueza de especies vegetales vasculares en un periodo anterior y posterior a la epoca de lluvias estivales (estacion seca y estacion humeda). La precipitacion estival del ano 2002 fue 203 mm, un monto normal para la region, mientras que el ano 2003 la precipitacion estival fue menor e igual a 84,7 mm (inferior al 50% del promedio de la ultima decada a esa fecha). La amplia mayoria de especies vegetales vasculares encontradas (92,9 %) es de origen nativo (n= 98 especies) y sus principales formas de vida son camefitas, nanofanerofitas y hemicriptofitas. Los resultados de los transectos presentaron patrones de estacionalidad; arrojaron mayor cobertura, riqueza de especies y mayores indices de biodiversidad durante la estacion humeda respecto a la seca. En la estacion seca nanofanerofitas y camefitas, principalmente tolas (de la voz aymara t´ola que significa arbusto), son las formas de vida mas abundantes, mientras que en la estacion humeda se suman las terofitas y hemicriptofitas herbaceas. El cambio proporcional de cobertura vegetal entre estaciones humeda y seca, asi como la participacion relativa de terofitas se vieron disminuidos durante el ano 2003, precedido por menor precipitacion estival que el ano 2002.