Curt C. Braun

ANALYZING COMMUNICATION SEQUENCES FOR TEAM TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Several models of team performance have suggested that a clearer understanding of team process is needed to determine better training formats and reduce crew-generated errors. The present study investigated the degree to which analyzing communication sequences would contribute to the understanding of effective crew process in two simulated flight tasks. The results indicate that pattern analyses reveal additional strong differences between performance groups that would have been overlooked by simple frequency counts of communication. In each case, the sequential analysis shed additional light on the communication patterns that characterize better-performing teams. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for team performance research and team training. Potential applications of this research include training needs assessment, training design, and performance measurement after training.

Perceived readability of warning labels with varied font sizes and styles

Abstract Warning readability is a major issue in the labeling of various consumer products. The purpose of the present research was to examine several variables that are associated with readability: font type, font weight, point size, and point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning (signal word-text size difference). A sample of 40 undergraduate students and 22 elderly persons rated 24 Ultra Tide detergent labels that contained a warning which varied across all levels of the type form variables. A composite variable “perceived readability” was formed from the averaged ratings from questions regarding how likely they would read the warning, its salience, and readability. Results showed that Helvetica type was perceived to be more readable than Times or Goudy. Moreover, Times was perceived to be more readable than Goudy. Bold type was perceived to be more readable than roman type. There was greater perceived readability of the warning when the main body was printed in 10-point size when compared to 8-point size. Results also showed that a signal word-text size difference of 2 points was perceived as more readable than a difference of 4 points. Implications for warning design are discussed.

The Impact of Color on Warnings Research

Researchers have examined a variety of attributes that influence a warnings ability to communicate important product hazards. These attributes include font type, signal words, and the use of icons. One attribute that has been noticeably absent from the warnings literature is color. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine the appropriateness of achromatic stimuli in product warning research. Thirty-three undergraduate students rated color and achromatic versions of twelve labels. These labels varied across four levels of product class and three levels of signal word. All labels were evaluated on six attributes: salience, readability, hazardousness, likelihood of injury, carefulness, and familiarity. A composite variable called “perceived hazard” was formed from the averaged ratings of hazardousness, carefulness, and likelihood of injury. Moreover, an additional variable “perceived readability” was composed of the mean ratings of readability and saliency. Results showed that color labels were perceived as more readable and hazardous than achromatic labels. Implications for warning research are discussed.

Automation Effects in the Cockpit: A Low-Fidelity Investigation

The effects of automation and task difficulty on flight performance, subjective and objective workload, and a problem solving task were investigated in a low fidelity flight simulator. Forty-eight, two-person crews flew two forty-five minute scenarios that required the crew to select and obtain relief supplies for delivery to a disaster site. Two levels of automation (i.e., presence or absence of an autopilot) and two levels of task difficulty (i.e., presence or absence of wind and turbulence) were combined to yield a 2 × 2 design. Twenty-four crews performed in both levels of automation and one level of task difficulty. Results indicated that although crews in the automated condition reported less subjective workload, only one of the three measures of flight performance was affected by automation. In contrast, objective workload, as measured by performance of a secondary task, was increased for the pilot in the automated condition. In addition, under high task difficulty, problem solving was worse m the automated condition than in the manual condition. The results are discussed in terms of their support of earlier hypothesized effects of automation in the cockpit.

The Interaction of Signal Word and Color on Warning Labels: Differences in Perceived Hazard

Previous research has examined the connoted hazard of various colors and signal words separately. The purpose of the present research was to examine the interaction of signal words and colors. A sample of 30 undergraduates rated the perceived hazard of 105 signal word/color combinations printed in specific hazard colors. of the colors used, red conveyed the highest level of perceived hazard followed by orange, black, green, and blue. There were significant differences among the signal words which were grouped into three different hazard level categories. High hazard words conveyed significantly more hazard than moderate and low hazard words. Likewise, moderate hazard words conveyed significantly more hazard than low hazard word group. More importantly, however, it was noted that a signal word such as DEADLY connoted less hazard when printed in green than red ink. Implications for warning design are discussed.

Signal Word and Color Specifications for Product Warnings: An Isoperformance Application:

Recent work in the area of color and warnings has indicated that the level of hazard communicated by signal words varies as a function of the color in which they are printed. These findings suggest that signal word and color combinations create a continuum of perceived hazard. Although individual experiments advance the understanding of how color affects the perception of product hazard, explicit data do not always provide label designers and product manufacturers with the tools necessary to successfully apply them. To explore how color and signal words can be jointly used, the present effort applied the isoperformance technique to the problem of specifying signal word and color combinations. This technique identifies combinations of variables that produce equal (iso) levels of warning (performance). Using perceived hazard data from 30 participants, signal words and colors were systematically grouped into categories that conveyed equal levels of hazard. How the isoperformance technique might serve as a tool for label designers is described.

Interaction of Warning Label Features: Determining the Contributions of Three Warning Characteristics

Warning label features such as signal words, typefaces, and color, have largely been evaluated independently of one another. Despite the statistically significant findings resulting from virtually every experiment involving these warning features, the literature has yet to address the larger issue of how these features interact when all three are present. The present effort evaluated the interaction of three different warning features to identify the extent to which each feature contributes to the perception of product hazard. These features included: signal word, legibility, and color. A sample of 34 participants rated the level of perceived hazard associated with labels that depicted the factorial combinations of two products, three signal words (DANGER, CAUTION, NOTICE), two levels of legibility (Helvetica and Arabia), and four colors (red, orange, green, and black). The data revealed significant main effects for each factor and a significant three-way interaction. The interaction indicated that in conditions of reduced legibility, color may be the only source of hazard information. Consumer product warning design implications are discussed.

Adding Consequence Information to Product Instructions: Changes in Hazard Perceptions

Product instructions represent one possible medium through which product hazard and safety information can be conveyed. Recent research has demonstrated that the likelihood of precautionary behavior increases when such behaviors are explicitly described within the product-use instructions. Although precautionary information has been provided within the instructions, some users are unable to translate this information into action. Moreover, the inclusion of explicit actions within product-use instructions has not been shown to influence perceptions of product related hazards. The present effort evaluated the utility of adding consequence information to product instructions. A sample of 193 participants evaluated the likelihood that they would be injured while using two different products displaying instructions that outlined only the actions to be performed, actions followed by consequences, consequences followed by actions, and actions with the product warning repeated within the instructions. The data revealed that instructions outlining the consequences before the actions yielded the highest likelihood of injury ratings. Measures of instruction complexity, however, revealed no significant differences between instruction sets. The data, in conjunction with previous findings, suggest that product-use instructions represent a viable means of conveying product hazards.

Likelihood of Reading Warnings: The Effect of Fonts and Font Sizes

Legibility of a warning is a major issue in the labeling of various consumer products, and over the counter and prescription drugs. The purpose of the present research was to examine certain variables that are associated with legibility, namely font type, font weight, point size, and point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning. A sample of undergraduate students and elderly people rated 24 Ultra Tide detergent labels for their likelihood to read the warning, the saliency of the warning, and readability of the warning. The results indicated that participants were more likely to read the warning in Helvetica type than in Times or Goudy. Times was more likely to be read than Goudy. Bold type was more likely to be read than Roman type. There was a greater likelihood of reading the warning when the main body was in 10 point size as compared to 8 point size. A 2 point size difference between the signal word and the main body of the warning produced a greater likelihood of reading the warning over a 4 point size difference. One possibility for this result is that the 4 point difference minimizes the importance of the main body of the warning, therefore making only the signal word salient.

Type form Variables: Differences in Perceived Readability and Perceived Hazardousness

This investigation assessed the type form variables that influence the readability of warnings and the subjective hazardousness of the product. The variables used were font type, point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning (signal word-text size difference), and point size of the signal word. Fifty undergraduate students rated 36 insecticide labels that contained a warning which varied across all levels of the three variables. The composite variable “perceived readability” was formed from the averaged ratings from questions regarding readability and saliency. Another composite variable “perceived hazardousness” was formed by averaging the ratings of hazardousness of the product and carefulness in usage. Results for perceived readability and perceived hazardousness were analogous. Results showed that Century Schoolbook was perceived as more readable than Bookman or Helvetica. Moreover, greater perceived readability was obtained when there was no difference between the point sizes of the signal word and the body of the warning. Perceived readability and perceived hazardousness decreased as the signal word-text size difference increased. There was greater perceived readability and perceived hazardousness when the signal word was printed in 14-point type than in 12- or 10-point types. Implications for warning design are discussed.