Cynthia A. Evans

Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs as digital data for remote sensing: spatial resolution

Astronaut-acquired orbital photographs (astronaut photographs) are a useful complement to images taken by orbiting satellites. They are in the public domain, and have been particularly useful for scientists in developing countries, as supplementary low-cloud data, and for studies requiring large numbers of images. Depending on camera, lens and look angle, digitized astronaut photographs can have pixel sizes representing areas on the Earth as small as 10 m or less, although most photographs suitable for digital remote sensing have pixel sizes between 30 m and 60 m. The objective of this paper is to provide a practical reference for scientists in a variety of disciplines who want to use astronaut photographs as remote sensing data. The characteristics of astronaut photography systems that influence spatial resolution are detailed and previous image acquisitions relative to these elements are summarized. Methods are presented for estimating ground coverage under three different levels of assumptions, to meet accuracy needs of different users. Of the more than 375 000 photographs taken to date, at least half have the potential to be used as a source of digital remote sensing data.

Space Station allows remote sensing of Earth to within six meters

Budgetary challenges and research limitations of the International Space Station, which is currently being constructed, are routinely discussed in the media [e.g., Lawler, 2001]. In spite of these challenges, an Earth remote sensing experiment being conducted from the International Space Station, called Crew Earth Observations [Robinson and Evans, 2001], is already yielding significant data returns by using the successful photographic methods employed in earlier Earth imaging programs from the Space Shuttle and Mir Space Station [Lulla and Dessinov, 2000]. Early results show great improvement in our ability to compensate for the relative motion of the Earth and achieve high remote sensing spatial resolution in handheld images. Images captured for Crew Earth Observations have spatial resolutions of less than 6 m, approaching the highest spatial resolution of color images now available from commercial remote sensing satellites.

Earth observations during space shuttle flight STS‐41: Discovery's mission to planet earth

An overview of space flight STS-41 is presented, including personal observations and comments by the mission astronauts. The crew deployed the Ulysses spacecraft to study the polar regions of the sun and the interplanetary space above the poles. Environmental observations, including those of Lake Turkana, Lake Chad, biomass burning in Madagascar and Argentina, and circular features in Yucatan are described. Observations that include landforms and geology, continental sedimentation, desert landscapes, and river morphology are discussed.

Interest sought for research aboard new window on the world: The International Space Station

The International Space Station, a new window on the world, will provide opportunities to study terrestrial processes and phenomena, in addition to microgravity and life sciences research. Earth-viewing windows and external attachment points for sensors will be added to the Space Station in November 1998, returning the science community to the long-term, observers-in-orbit capability of the Skylab program of 1973–1974. This will allow researchers aboard the station to test sensing devices and transmit information about environmental phenomena to Earth.

Earth observations during space shuttle flight STS‐35: Columbia's mission to planet earth, December 2–10, 1990

Some of the most significant earth-viewing imagery obtained during Space Shuttle Columbias flight STS-35, December 2-10, 1990, is reviewed with emphasis on observations of the Southern Hemisphere. In particular, attention is given to environmental observations in areas of Madagascar, Brazil, and Persian Gulf; observation of land resources (Namibia, offshore Australia); and observations of ocean islands (Phillipines, Indonesia, and Reunion). Some of the photographs are included.

Earth observations during space shuttle mission STS‐45 mission to planet earth March 24—April 2, 1992

A description is presented of the activities and results of the Space Shuttle mission STS-45, known as the Mission to Planet Earth. Observations of Mount St. Helens, Manila Bay and Mt. Pinatubo, the Great Salt Lake, the Aral Sea, and the Siberian cities of Troitsk and Kuybyshev are examined. The geological features and effects of human activity seen in photographs of these areas are pointed out.

Research on the International Space Station - An Overview

The International Space Station (ISS) celebrates ten years of operations in 2008. While the station did not support permanent human crews during the first two years of operations November 1998 to November 2000 it hosted a few early science experiments months before the first international crew took up residence. Since that time and simultaneous with the complicated task of ISS construction and overcoming impacts from the tragic Columbia accident science returns from the ISS have been growing at a steady pace. As of this writing, over 162 experiments have been operated on the ISS, supporting research for hundreds of ground-based investigators from the U.S. and international partners. This report summarizes the experimental results collected to date. Today, NASAs priorities for research aboard the ISS center on understanding human health during long-duration missions, researching effective countermeasures for long-duration crewmembers, and researching and testing new technologies that can be used for future exploration crews and spacecraft. Through the U.S. National Laboratory designation, the ISS is also a platform available to other government agencies. Research on ISS supports new understandings, methods or applications relevant to life on Earth, such as understanding effective protocols to protect against loss of bone density or better methods for producing stronger metal alloys. Experiment results have already been used in applications as diverse as the manufacture of solar cell and insulation materials for new spacecraft and the verification of complex numerical models for behavior of fluids in fuel tanks. A synoptic publication of these results will be forthcoming in 2009. At the 10-year point, the scientific returns from ISS should increase at a rapid pace. During the 2008 calendar year, the laboratory space and research facilities were tripled with the addition of ESAs Columbus and JAXAs Kibo scientific modules joining NASAs Destiny Laboratory. All three laboratories, together with external payload accommodations, support a wide variety of research racks and science and technology experiments. In 2009, the number of crewmembers will increase from three to six, greatly increasing the time available for research. The realization of the international scientific partnership provides new opportunities for scientific collaboration and broadens the research potential on the ISS. Engineers and scientists from around the world are working together to refine their operational relationships and build from their experiences conducting early science to ensure maximum utilization of the expanded capabilities aboard ISS. This paper will summarize science results and accomplishments, and discuss how the early science utilization provides the foundation for continuing research campaigns aboard the ISS that will benefit future exploration programs.

Earth observations during Space Shuttle flight STS-31: The earth from 600 km - April 24 through 29, 1990

Images taken aboard the Space Shuttle flight STS-31 are presented and discussed in terms of documenting key features and describing regional interrelationships. The images comprise regional views and continuous swath maps that are intended to serve as linkage and/or context for related photographs in the shuttle database. The Linhof hand-held mapping camera is employed at 20-s intervals resulting in contiguous swaths with 75-percent overlap, and Hasselblad images are taken simultaneously to complement the swaths. Specific examples of the products are given for regions including Lake Eyre, Australia, Madagascar, and Central America; specific landforms are also shown including the El Chichon volcano, and an example is shown of the differential heating of land and water. The photographs are considered useful for mapping large-scale features and for providing context for smaller image-data products.

Space Shuttle Earth observations digital data base

The Space Shuttle Earth Observations Project (SSEOP) collects photographs of the Earth taken by Space Shuttle astronauts and maintains a public digital data base describing each Earth-looking photograph taken in the U.S. piloted space program. The number of photographs cataloged in the SSEOP data base is over 200,000 and is projected to increase by more than 30,000 per year. The data base allows Internet access by educators, the scientific community, and the general public to critical information about the photographs. The data base provides two primary functions: (1) allowing geographic searches, (2) allowing a selected set of the best photographs to be down loaded. Because the coverage is global with highest concentrations in the fast-changing tropics, and the length of record is more than 30 years, this data set is well suited to understanding global environmental change.<<ETX>>

Earth observations during space shuttle flight sts‐49: Endeavor's mission to planet earth (May 7–16, 1992)

A brief mission overview of STS-49 is given, and some of the pictorially outstanding and scientifically interesting photographs obtained during the mission are presented. The Earth observations are described and include the following: the Southwestern Pacific Ocean -- wind and water; the Southwestern Pacific Ocean -- coasts and volcanoes; the US; Cuba and the Bahamas; South America; Africa; the Red Sea and Western Indian Ocean; and the Indian Subcontinent.