D. Casamassima

Factors of welfare reduction in dairy sheep and goats

Abstract Scientific research on factors causing the reduction of well-being in sheep and goats is rather recent, as are studies of strategies to minimize the adverse effects of environmental challenges and improper management practices on flock welfare. Sheep and goats, considered very rustic animals, are reared prevalently under extensive production systems and are widespread mainly in marginal areas. For these reasons, only few studies on the welfare of these species have been carried out in the past. More recently, the scenario has changed, due to a gradual diffusion of intensive and semi-intensive production systems, especially in dairy sheep and goat breeds, to the growing concern of consumers about the life conditions of farmed animals, and to the issuing of a number of rules and laws on the safety of animal products and well-being of farmed livestock. As a consequence, several research groups have turned their attention to the welfare of sheep and goats. Nevertheless, information on this topic is still scarce. This paper reviews major critical points regarding the endangerment of welfare in farmed sheep and goats. Climatic extremes and seasonal fluctuations in herbage amount and quality are discussed as important causes of the reduction of well-being in extensive production systems, which can impair production efficiency of grazing animals and dramatically affect the welfare and health status of sheep and goats. Space allowance and structures of sheep and goat houses are described as the main potential sources of discomfort for housed flocks, together with inadequate control of micro-environment, and inappropriate milking procedures and human-animal interactions. Recent studies on the impact of high ambient temperature, different ventilation regimes, high stocking densities, reduced airspace and poor litter management on behaviour, immune and endocrine response, and on performance of sheep and goats are discussed. The effects of inadequate milking procedures and improper milking technical parameters on welfare and udder health of sheep and goats are also discussed. Finally, some practices aimed at minimizing emotional and nutritional stresses of lambs and kids after early separation from the mother, before the transition to artificial rearing, and at weaning time are described.

Effects of two different housing systems on behavior, physiology and milk yield of Comisana ewes

Two groups of 20 early-lactating Comisana ewes were used in this study, and were allocated to either an indoor or outdoor daytime environment. The indoor environment was a 3mx12m straw bedded pen inside a pre-fabricated building. The outdoor environment was a 200m(2) paddock during daytime (09.00-19.00h) with ewes being moved to the shed, as described for the indoor treatment, at night. Behavior of ewes was recorded at 14 days interval from 09.00 to 19.00h. A phytohemagglutinin (PHA) skin test was performed at weeks 6, 11, 15 and 18 of the experiment to induce a non-specific delayed-type hypersensitivity in ewes. Jugular blood samples were taken at the beginning and at weeks 5, 10, 14 and 18 to determine endocrine and metabolic responses of animals to housing system and to changes in climatic conditions and stage of lactation. Ewe milk yield was recorded daily and individual milk samples were analyzed for milk composition, coagulating properties and somatic cell count (SCC) at 14 days interval. No differences were found between groups for endocrine and immune responses. Outdoor ewes had increased locomotor activities (P<0.01) and decreased idling (P<0.05) compared to indoor animals. The outdoor group had higher levels of blood creatinine (P<0.01) and inorganic phosphorus (P<0.05) as well as lower urea (P<0.01) and glucose (P<0.001) concentrations compared to the indoor group. Milk yield and composition were not changed by the housing system, though significant timextreatment interactions were found for milk constituents, with indoor-housed ewes having higher (P<0.05) milk protein, fat and lactose concentrations during the middle of the trial. Outdoor ewes had lower SCC (P<0.003) and pH (P<0.001) in their milk than indoor ewes, whereas renneting parameters were not different across treatments. Results suggest that ewe welfare and productivity were not substantially affected by the housing system. The provision of feeding rations that meet the greater energy demand for maintenance is required to sustain productivity in outdoor reared sheep.

Monitoring the on-farm welfare of sheep and goats

Abstract Schemes for on-farm welfare assessment in sheep and goats are not yet available. Factors responsible for this lack of availability are discussed in the first part of this review. Requisites for reliable methods of welfare assessment to be used in sheep and goat farms are discussed, taking into account the peculiarities of the small ruminant production systems in terms of flock management and farm location. Some housing parameters related to structures, design and micro-environment are reviewed and could be included in schemes of welfare assessment on farm. Human-animal interaction, health status of the animals in terms of body condition scoring, skin and hair conditions, lameness and injuries, and management practices in relation to cleanliness, animal handling and moving, milking procedures and abnormal behaviours, are proposed as potential animal-based indicators. When available, validity, reliability and feasibility of the proposed parameters are discussed. The voluntary adhesion to welfare standards in Sardinia and the application of a scientifically validated protocol in Basilicata are reported as examples of practical experiences.

Group size effects on grazing behaviour and efficiency in sheep

Two grazing trials were conducted during early winter (January 1996) and spring (April 1996) to evaluate the effect of group size on grazing efficiency and behaviour of sheep. Three treatments were tested, large (LG), medium (MG) and small group size (SG), with 2 replicates for each treatment of 12, 9, and 6 ewes, respectively. Groups were homogeneous for age and weight. Paddock size furnished 10 m(2) per sheep per day. Group size did not affect grazing efficiency and herbage intake in the winter, but in the spring, when herbage mass was more plentiful, the ewes in the small groups grazed shorter, had a lower herbage intake and a less efficient use of forage. Consequently, the sheep in the small groups gained less weight than those in the large groups in spring. Neither group size nor seasonal changes in forage quantity or quality influenced sheep selectivity. These results suggest that the choice of a proper flock size at pasture can play a major role in optimizing grazing efficiency in sheep, especially when feeding is largely based on grazing, as generally occurs in countries of the Mediterranean basin in spring. Under the conditions of this study, our results indicate that a flock size of more than 6 sheep should be used for studies on sheep grazing behaviour.

Ocular tissues and fluids oxidative stress in hares fed on verbascoside supplement

Abstract The influence of a prolonged diet supplemented with the powerful antioxidant verbascoside on the oxidative state of 20 healthy hares eye fluids and tissues has been studied. Verbascoside was dosed at 2, 3, 4 mg/die and the impact on the oxidative state of ocular tissues and fluids was tested by TBARS (thio barbituric acid reactive substances) and TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) assays. The percentage of change in antioxidant activity increased largely in retina and lenses at a daily verbascoside dose of 3 mg, whereas for optic nerve and vitreous humor the higher antioxidant capacity was measured at 4 mg/die verbascoside dose. The present findings demonstrate that verbascoside supplementation is able to protect ocular tissue and fluids from naturally occurring oxidation and that its protective effect depends on the daily dose, being maximum up to 3 mg/die.

Effects of verbascoside-based diet on blood and plasma constituents of rabbits

Objective: Oxidative stress brought on by free radicals can lead to an increased risk of some chronic pathologies. Antioxidants can scavenge free radicals by turning them into nonradical and nontoxic metabolites. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of a phenylpropanoid glycosides–based prolonged diet on blood constituents in animals. Methods: Tests were carried out on healthy New Zealand white rabbits and the following parameters were evaluated at baseline and after 90 days’ follow-up: plasma triglycerides, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, aspartate transaminase, alanine aminotransferase, bilirubin, the reactive oxygen metabolites, thiobarbituric acid–reactive substances, vitamin A, and vitamin E. The same parameters were analyzed in an age- and sex-matched animal control group. Results: We first defined the concept of average rate and then used it to calculate, by experimental data fitting, the formation or destruction rate of some blood or plasma constituents as a function of the daily dose. The results indicate that the effects can be categorized into 2 classes. The first includes the effects that produce monotonously continuous changes with daily dose, and the second includes those that exhibit a saturating trend. Conclusions: The experimental results suggest that high doses of verbascoside can potentially cause adverse effects through prooxidative effects. Risk is increased by the use of pharmacological doses of polyphenols in prevention, treatment, and as dietary supplements.

Effect of dietary Lippia citriodora extract on reproductive and productive performance and plasma biochemical parameters in rabbit does

Two doses of natural extract from Lippia citriodora (titrated in verbascoside) were assessed in New Zealand White rabbit does evaluating selected reproductive, productive and plasma biochemical parameters. After 1 week of adaptation period, the trial on 45 rabbit does for three consecutive reproductive cycles was conducted; does were divided into three groups of 15 animals each, homogenous by age (1 year ± 2 weeks), bodyweight (4.77 ± 0.21 kg) and parity (2 ± 1). A control group (CON) did not receive the dietary supplement in the feed and the other two groups received 1 g of natural extract supplement in the feed (5 mg verbascoside/kg feed; LNE) and 2 g of natural extract (10 mg verbascoside/kg feed; HNE). The use of a dietary NE supplement improved kit bodyweight at weaning (934 vs 1104 g; P < 0.001), and average daily weight gain from birth to weaning (24.7 vs 29.7 g/day; P < 0.001), with no NE dose effect. In the LNE and HNE groups serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, bilirubin, and activities of alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase (P < 0.05) and aspartate aminotransferase (P < 0.01) decreased and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (P < 0.01) increased, according to the cycle effect. The dietary supplement also improved blood oxidative status markers in the experimental groups due to an increase in the concentrations of plasma vitamin A and E (P < 0.01) and a decrease in plasma reactive oxygen metabolites and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances values (P < 0.01). In conclusion, the dietary Lippia NE supplement improved selected productive and reproductive parameters and the animal welfare of does, expressed by a general improvement of blood profile, with no effect of the dose.

The effects of fermented wheat powder (Lisosan G) on the blood lipids and oxidative status of healthy rabbits

A number of studies have shown that whole grain products have strong antioxidant effects. Lisosan G, a powder produced from the fermentation of Triticum aestivum, has shown hepatoprotective effects. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the effects of Lisosan G on the serum lipid profile and oxidative status of healthy rabbits. Forty rabbits were fed either a normal diet or a diet containing 10 g, 20 g or 30 g Lisosan G/kg of feed for 60 days. The supplementation of Lisosan G did not cause any alteration of the aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), bilirubin or creatinine concentrations, but caused a reduction in triglycerides, in low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and an increase in high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. The antioxidant activity of Lisosan G has been confirmed on the basis of the reduction in the blood reactive oxygen metabolites (ROMs) and in the level of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) together with increased vitamin A and E concentrations in the blood. Moreover, Lisosan G also caused the induction of antioxidant enzymes in the liver and kidney of the treated rabbits. This study has shown the ability of Lisosan G to improve the lipid profile and antioxidant status of the blood in healthy rabbits.

Effects of Verbascoside Administration on the Blood Parameters and Oxidative Status in Jennies and Their Suckling Foals: Potential Improvement of Milk for Human Use

BACKGROUND Oxidative damage of tissues and cellular components is a primary or secondary cause of many human diseases and is associated with the welfare and productivity of farm animals. Natural antioxidants have gained attention for the prevention of oxidative damage-related diseases. AIM OF THE STUDY To determine the effects of dietary supplementation with a natural polyphenol (verbascoside, VB) on the serum lipid profile, the hepatic functionality and oxidative status of jennies and their suckling foals. RESULTS Supplementation with VB over 30 days decreased in jennies the serum levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, bilirubin, AST and ALT, and it increased the HDL cholesterol. As markers of the oxidative status, a decrease of ROMs and TBARs, and an increase in vitamin E levels were observed. Interestingly, the suckling foals showed the same trends in the blood parameters and oxidative status. CONCLUSIONS Supplementation with VB influenced the lipidic and hepatic profiles, and oxidative status of jennies and the suckling foals, and may represent a potentially novel strategy for improving the functional properties of donkeys milk for human diet and for improving the welfare of young animals.

Evaluation of milk production and some blood parameters in lactating autochthonous goat extensively reared in Molise region

Abstract The trial, lasted 7 months and was performed on 60 lactating autochthonous goat populations (Montefalcone and Valfortorina) extensively reared in Molise Region. Goat milk yield and composition, and pasture chemical and floristic composition were recorded monthly. At the beginning (30d), at half (105d) and at the end (210d) of trial body weight and body condition score (BCS) were recorded; besides jugular blood samples were taken at 30, 105 e 210 d to determined the following parameters: glucose, total protein, albumin, urea, triglycerides, total and HDL cholesterol, NEFA, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. The two populations showed a milk yield of 275 kg e 258 kg (Montefalcone e Valfortorina goat, respectively) throughout 180 days of lactation, which was similar or higher than mean milk yield of other goat breeds (Sarda, Ionica, Argentata dell’Etna). BCS increased significantly (P<0.01) during lactation in both populations. Blood parameters displayed significant changes (P<0.01) during the trial in Montefalcone goat for glucose, albumin, urea, triglycerides, total and HDL cholesterol, NEFA, sodium and potassium instead Valfortorina goat showed significant differences in total protein, urea, total and HDL cholesterol, NEFA, magnesium, sodium (P<0.01) and albumin and potassium (P<0.05). In both population, milk yield and quality showed promising results for autochthonous goats preservation.