D. Craig Sheppard

A value added manure management system using the black soldier fly

Abstract A manure management system for laying hens using the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) converted manure to a 42% protein, 35% fat feedstuff, reduced manure accumulation by at least 50% and eliminated house fly breeding. No extra facility or added energy was required. Mature larvae self-harvested producing a feedstuff as they attempted to pupate. Optimal feedstuff to manure dry matter yield was 7·8%. This insect occurs worldwide in tropical and warm-temperature regions and can digest many biological wastes.

Rearing methods for the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae).

Abstract The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), is a nonpest tropical and warm-temperate region insect that is useful for managing large concentrations of animal manure and other biosolids. Manure management relying on wild fly oviposition has been successful in several studies. However, confidence in this robust natural system was low and biological studies were hampered by the lack of a dependable source of eggs and larvae. Larvae had been reared easily by earlier investigators, but achieving mating had been problematic. We achieved mating reliably in a 2 by 2 by 4-m screen cage in a 7 by 9 by 5-m greenhouse where sunlight and adequate space for aerial mating were available. Mating occurred during the shortest days of winter if the sun was not obscured by clouds. Adults were provided with water, but no food was required. Techniques for egg collection and larval rearing are given. Larvae were fed a moist mixture of wheat bran, corn meal, and alfalfa meal. This culture has been maintained for 3 yr. Maintainance of a black soldier fly laboratory colony will allow for development of manure management systems in fully enclosed animal housing and in colder regions.

Selected Life-History Traits of Black Soldier Flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Reared on Three Artificial Diets

Abstract Hermetia illucens (L.) was reared on three larval diets to determine their effects on preimaginal development and selected adult life-history traits. Prepupal and adult characteristics were examined for individuals reared on each diet and compared with field-collected prepupae and corresponding emergent adults. Diet did not significantly influence development or survivorship to the prepupal stage. However, adult emergence for all diets was significantly less than that determined for the wild population. Development time from egg to adult for individuals reared on the diets at 27°C ranged from 40 to 43 d with the larval stage lasting 22–24 d. We observed >96% larval survivorship to the prepupal stage and 21–27% adult emergence. Females accounted for 55–60% of emergent adults across treatments. Specimens reared on each diet were reduced in size, longevity, and calorie content in comparison to specimens from the wild population. Males within diet treatments and field-collected specimens were significantly smaller than females and emerged 1–2 d before females. Additionally, males reared on the diets and provided water lived for 9 d, whereas females lived for 8 d. This information indicates the diets might be used for rearing soldier flies. However, further refinement is needed to produce adults similar to those found in nature.

Factors Influencing Mating and Oviposition of Black Soldier Flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in a Colony

Most information on the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), is limited to its use as a biological control and waste management agent. Little is known about its mating and oviposition activities. Latency from emergence to mating and oviposition for colony-reared black soldier flies placed in a 1.5 × 1.5 × 3 m nylon cage located in a greenhouse was determined. Sixty-nine percent of mating occurred 2 d after eclosion and 70% of oviposition 4 d after eclosion. Time of day and light intensity significantly correlated with mating (r2 = 0.49; P < 0.0001), while time of day, temperature, and humidity significantly correlated with oviposition (r2 = 0.58; P < 0.0001). Latency after emergence significantly correlated with mating (r2 = 0.99; P < 0.0001) and oviposition (r2 = 0.99; P < 0.0001). A second experiment was conducted to examine oviposition preference of the black soldier fly. Adults were allowed to oviposit in Gainesville house fly, Musca domestica L., larval media with and without 5-d-old black sold...

Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Colonization of Pig Carrion in South Georgia

The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), is thought to colonize corpses 20-30 days postmortem. However, recent observations indicate this might not be true for all cases. Therefore, we conducted a study examining colonization by the black soldier fly and other Diptera on pig carrion in a plowed field in southern Georgia from 20 September through 21 February. Our data indicate black soldier flies could colonize a corpse within the first week after death. Knowing this information could prevent a serious mistake in estimating the time at which a corpse is colonized by this species. This study also represents the first record of Chrysomya rufifacies in Georgia.

Susceptibility of Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae and Adults to Four Insecticides

Abstract Dosage-mortality regressions were determined for black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), larvae fed cyromazine or pyriproxifen treated media. Cyromazine LC50s for larvae dying before becoming prepupae ranged from 0.25 to 0.28 ppm with dosage-mortality regression slopes between 5.79 and 12.04. Cyromazine LC50s for larvae dying before emergence ranged from 0.13 to 0.19 ppm with dosage-mortality regression slopes between 3.94 and 7.69. Pyriproxifen dosage-mortality regressions were not generated for larvae failing to become prepupae since <32% mortality was recorded at the highest concentration of 1,857 ppm. LC50s for larvae failing to become adults ranged from 0.10 to 0.12 ppm with dosage mortality-regression slopes between 1.67 and 2.32. Lambda-cyhalothrin and permethrin dosage-mortality regressions were determined for wild adult black soldier flies and house flies, Musca domestica L., and for susceptible house flies. Our results indicate that the wild house fly, unlike the black soldier fly, population was highly resistant to each of these pyrethroids. Regression slopes for black soldier flies exposed to λ-cyhalothrin were twice as steep as those determined for the wild house fly strain. Accordingly, LC50s for the black soldier fly and susceptible house fly were 10- to 30-fold lower than those determined for wild house flies. The differential sensitivity between wild black soldier flies and house flies might be due to behavioral differences. Adult house flies usually remain in animal facilities with the possibility of every adult receiving pesticide exposure, while black soldier fly adults are typically present only during emergence and oviposition thereby limiting their exposure.

Resistance in Constant Exposure Livestock Insect Control Systems: A Partial Review with Some Original Findings on Cyromazine Resistance in House Flies

Insecticide resistance development in three continuous exposure livestock insect control systems is discussed. These include residual pyrethroid sprays and cyromazine feed-through for house flies, and insecticide cattle ear tags for horn flies. All three of these systems selected for resistance problems in the field within two years. Other discontinuous use patterns of these same chemicals have been used on the same insects in the field and selected for much lower or no resistance. The conclusion is that these systems waste the resource of insect susceptibility, especially with mobile insects with short generation time such as the flies discussed here.

FIRST RECORD OF CHRYSOMYA MEGACEPHALA (DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE) IN GEORIGA, U.S.A.

Four species of Old World Chrysomya Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera: Calliphoridae) have been introduced to the New World during the past 20 years (Wells 1991). Chrysomya megacephala (F.) was first collected from Brazil in 1975 and was thought to have originated from southern Africa (Baumgartner & Greenberg 1984). Chrysomya megacephala has become established in North America since being introduced into Brazil (Baumgartner & Greenberg 1984). The first record of Chrysomya megacephala in the United States was from a single specimen collected in Texas (Wells 1991). This species has since been collected in California (Greenberg 1988),

SUPERCOOLING STUDIES ON THE IMPORTED FIRE ANTS: SOLENOPSIS INVICTA AND SOLENOPSIS RICHTERI (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE) AND THEIR HYBRID

The discovery of hybrid fire ants, Solenopsis invicta × S. richteri, in northwest Georgia at a more northern latitude than S. invicta led to an investigation into the hybrids ability to withstand ...

MANURE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES

A number of manure management strategies are used for both open lot and confinement facilities in the U.S. The primary control strategies for open lots are solids removal using settling basins and containment followed by land application of the liquids. These management strategies are dictated by federal law for large open lots. Smaller lots may or may not capture and land apply the runoff liquid. Both large and small lot operators must haul and distribute manure solids on the land. Solid manure spreaders that apply uniform rates is a major research need. Confinement facilities rely primarily, but not exclusively, on liquid handling systems. Two general categories of liquid systems are pits, or slurry systems, and lagoons, primarily anaerobic lagoons. Anaerobic lagoon design has been researched and is well known to environmental engineers. Anaerobic lagoons work better in warm climates where biological activity continues most of the year. Anaerobic digesters with controlled temperatures can be used to produce biogas and reduce pathogens, but are difficult to justify due to high capital costs, high management requirements and a lack of incentives for using the systems. Covered lagoons and anaerobic digesters can significantly reduce odors and releases of unwanted gases. Naturally aerobic lagoons can reduce nitrogen in the liquid significantly, but are impractical because of large size requirements. Mechanically aerated lagoons are sometimes used. Autothermal thermophilic aerobic digestion, biofilm reactors, sequencing batch reactors, and combinations of anoxic and aerobic treatments are being researched, and offer advantages of odor reduction, and waste degradation and stabilization. Additional research is needed to optimize these systems for nutrient reduction, pathogen destruction, and energy use. Solid-liquid separation can be used for both open lots and confinements. Open lots typically use settling basins. Confinements typically use mechanical separators. The efficiency of a separator depends on the type of waste and the separator. It’s difficult to achieve high efficiencies of separation without pretreatment with coagulating chemicals. Solids from both separators and from open lots are sometimes composted. Wetland treatment of manure liquids has received some research attention. It has been shown to offer some nutrient reduction advantages when designed properly. Initial design parameters have been determined for animal waste systems, but continued research is needed to adapt wetland systems to different types of livestock operations. Chemical amendments remain a question. Both feed additives and manure additives have been tested by a number of researchers, and have achieved only moderate success at best. Much research is needed before chemical additives will be major contributors to manure control solutions. Land application systems are well developed, but always need continued work to improve efficiencies and effectiveness. One of the primary areas of research needs currently is for injection units that minimize disturbance of the soil and crop residue cover. Insect digestion of manure solids has been well researched in laboratory settings. Effective field production systems need to be devised, and uses for the resultant high protein feedstuffs need to be developed. Many of the above technologies can be combined into integrated treatment systems that protect soil, air, and water quality. Manure management strategies are different for manure from a confinement system (used here to mean a totally roofed facility) and from an open lot, or partial open lot system. Because open lots are subject to hydrologic phenomenon such as rainfall, runoff, sunlight, and evaporation, they are very different from confinement systems. Although there are some similarities, there are many differences.